Molar Levels Research Articles

Fragmentation of Human Neutrophil α-Defensin 4 to Combat Multidrug Resistant Bacteria.

The occurrence and spread of multidrug-resistant bacteria is a prominent health concern. To curb this urgent threat, new innovative strategies pursuing novel antimicrobial agents are of the utmost importance. Here, we unleashed the antimicrobial activity of human neutrophil peptide-4 (HNP-4) by tryptic digestion. We identified a single 11 amino acid long fragment (HNP-41–11) with remarkable antimicrobial potential, exceeding that of the full length peptide on both mass and molar levels. Importantly, HNP-41–11 was equally bactericidal against multidrug-resistant and non-resistant strains; a potency that was further enhanced by N- and C-terminus modifications (acetylation and amidation, respectively). These observations, combined with negligible cytotoxicity not exceeding that of the full length peptide, presents proteolytic digestion of innate host-defense-peptides as a novel strategy to overcome the current health crisis related to antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Dielectric relaxation studies of aqueous l-glutamine-ethanol mixtures in the microwave frequency range

A study on the dielectric properties of various molar concentration levels of aqueous l-glutamine, ethanol mixtures at microwave frequency region (0.02 < ν/GHz < 20) is carried out in the temperature range of 298 K to 323 K. Dielectric parameters such as dielectric permittivity, dielectric loss of different molar concentrations of l-glutamine in water, ethanol medium are evaluated. It is noticed that the real and imaginary part of dielectric permittivity increases with increase in molar concentration levels of l-glutamine in water and ethanol medium and decreases with increase in temperature. From these parameters, average relaxation time (τ), excessive inverse relaxation time (1/τ)E, excessive dielectric permittivity (εE) are determined and their behavior is analyzed in terms of the distribution of hydrogen bond network in the liquid medium. The theoretical dipole moments of l-glutamine in both aqueous and ethanol medium are determined by using DFT-B3LYP method with different solvation models. Mean molecular polarizability (αM) of the system is calculated from the Lippincott δ function potential model and compared with the Lefevre method. The activation entropy (ΔS*), activation enthalpy (ΔH*), Helmholtz energy (ΔFE) parameters have also been evaluated and the results are correlated.

Effect of choline chloride-oxalic acid based deep eutectic solvent on the ultrasonic assisted extraction of polyphenols from Aegle marmelos

In spite of their superior dissolution capacity for bioactive compounds, reduced environmental impact and low toxicity, the high viscosity of DES may affect the extraction capacity and efficiency, for which, necessary modification may be necessary. However, such changes can lead to a drastic reduction in the extraction yield because of the highly sensitive nature of the supramolecular structure of DES. To investigate the effect of molar ratio, water addition and temperature, ultrasound-assisted extraction of phenolic compounds from Aegle marmelos was performed with a series of DESs based on choline chloride and oxalic acid (DES: oxaline) with different molar ratio and water addition levels. HPLC-DAD was applied to quantify individual phenolic compounds. To understand the structural and physical characteristics under different processing conditions, FTIR, density and rheology analysis of oxaline were performed. Binary aqueous solvent mixtures were used as the reference. According to the experimental results, oxaline11 with 25% water and 80 °C was the best combination for extracting polyphenols from bael. The optimized condition enabled better cavitiational process by lowering viscosity and forming a stronger H-bonding between the DES and components, enhancing the extraction yield and capacity by >60% compared to conventional solvents. The results of this study highlight the potential application of deep eutectic solvent as an alternative to conventional organic solvents in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications.

Nuclear magnetic resonance as a tool for the assessment of postharvest changes in the metabolome of the skin of sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.)

A metabolomics approach based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, a rapid and simple technique, was used for the assessment of chemical changes of ‘Van’ sweet cherries during their storage. This approach affords a holistic analysis since NMR spectroscopy allows the simultaneous detection of diverse groups of secondary and primary metabolites, and reflects the real molar levels of the metabolites. Additionally, color parameters L*, a* and b*, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), anthocyanidins and total antioxidant potential (AOP) were measured. After harvest, cherries were stored at 1°C and sampling was done after 0, 2, 4, 7 and 10 days. Cherry skin was removed, freeze dried and stored at -80°C till analyses. For NMR analyses, freeze dried cherry skins have been extracted with methanol-d(4)/trifluoroacetic acid-d solvent mixture. For other analyses, samples were extracted in 70% ethanol with 1% of formic acid. The 1D and 2D NMR spectral analysis confirmed that sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose), organic acids (malic and citric acid), and phenolic compounds (neochlorogenic acid, cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, and cyanidin 3-O-glucoside) are the main compounds in the cherry skin extracts. The (1)H NMR spectral data have been subjected to multivariate analysis. Orthogonal projections to latent structures (OPLS) were applied to correlate the NMR data with the storage time. The changes in chemical composition among the samples with different storage time were clearly visible on the score plot. According to the goodness of fit of the model (R(2)=0.954), and its predictive ability (Q(2)=0.634), cherry skin extracts were well-correlated with the storage time. A positive correlation of the signals corresponding to glucose, neochlorogenic acid, cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, and cyanidin 3-O-glucoside with the storage time of cherries has been observed on the loading plot. According to the loading plot, the increase in the content of glucose, neochlorogenic acid, cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside, and cyanidin 3-O-glucoside has been correlated with the storage time of cherries. Since polyphenolic compounds were found to correlate well with the storage time, the content of redox active compounds was further assessed with AOP, TPC and TFC. All these parameters were increasing for 7 days after harvest then started to decline slightly. The content of all three anthocyanidins increased 2 days after harvest then remained stable till the end of sampling period.

Selective colorimetric molecular probe for cyanide ion detection in aqueous solution

5-Nitro-2-hydroxybenzaldehyde (1) demonstrated to be a sensitive, and a selective molecular probe for cyanide ion (CN-) in aqueous media. In acetonitrile, compound 1 shows sensitivity and selectivity for cyanide, acetate and fluoride, in comparison to other investigated anions using both visual and spectroscopic means. In aqueous solution, the color becomes intense yellow upon addition of cyanide, while acetate showed this effect to a much lower extent. Significant spectral changes were also detected with the appearance of two new absorption bands at 358 and 387 nm. This was accompanied by concomitant intensity decrease for the band at 314 nm. Fluoride, dihydrogen phosphate, chloride, bromide, perchlorate, and azide showed negligible color and spectral changes for the probe in aqueous solutions. On the other hand, hydrogen sulfate caused fainting of the yellow color and gave a spectrum similar to that of the sensor in polar aprotic solvents. The cyanide ion was detected at micro molar levels in aqueous solutions with a stoichiometry of 1:1 for CN: probe in acetonitrile as the solvent. Cyanide, hydroxide, acetate, fluoride and dihydrogen phosphate showed identical changes to color and spectra, indicating a hydrogen bonding and a deprotonation mechanism.

Native-state imaging of calcifying and noncalcifying microalgae reveals similarities in their calcium storage organelles

Calcium storage organelles are common to all eukaryotic organisms and play a pivotal role in calcium signaling and cellular calcium homeostasis. In most organelles, the intraorganellar calcium concentrations rarely exceed micromolar levels. Acidic organelles called acidocalcisomes, which concentrate calcium into dense phases together with polyphosphates, are an exception. These organelles have been identified in diverse organisms, but, to date, only in cells that do not form calcium biominerals. Recently, a compartment storing molar levels of calcium together with phosphorous was discovered in an intracellularly calcifying alga, the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi, raising a possible connection between calcium storage organelles and calcite biomineralization. Here we used cryoimaging and cryospectroscopy techniques to investigate the anatomy and chemical composition of calcium storage organelles in their native state and at nanometer-scale resolution. We show that the dense calcium phase inside the calcium storage compartment of the calcifying coccolithophore Pleurochrysis carterae and the calcium phase stored in acidocalcisomes of the noncalcifying alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii have common features. Our observations suggest that this strategy for concentrating calcium is a widespread trait and has been adapted for coccolith formation. The link we describe between acidocalcisomal calcium storage and calcium storage in coccolithophores implies that our physiological and molecular genetic understanding of acidocalcisomes could have relevance to the calcium pathway underlying coccolithophore calcification, offering a fresh entry point for mechanistic investigations on the adaptability of this process to changing oceanic conditions.

Interspecific variation of essential and non-essential trace elements in sympatric seabirds

Chemical pollution is a growing issue for ocean ecosystems, threatening especially apex predators because they bioaccumulate persistent chemical pollutants such as non-essential trace elements. The trophic position is thus a key aspect when assessing the impacts of environmental pollution in marine organisms. Here we investigate the differences in the concentrations of essential (Cu, Cr, Se, and Zn) and non-essential elements (Hg, Al, As, Cd, and Sr), in muscular and hepatic tissues of four sympatric non-migratory seabirds (namely Sula leucogaster, Larus dominicanus, Fregata magnificens, and Thalasseus acuflavidus), which were found stranded along the Brazilian coast. The observed hepatic and muscular interspecific differences in elemental concentrations indicated that these sympatric seabirds are differently exposed to persistent contaminants circulating in the food web due to differences with respect to known feeding behaviours and prey preferences. Moreover, we found a consistent co-accumulative relationship between Se and Hg molar levels in liver tissues with mean Se:Hg molar ratio above 1. This relationship supports previous studies indicating that Se, via the formation of SeHg complexes, plays an essential biochemical role in the detoxification process of methyl mercury in seabirds. Our results suggest that feeding behaviour is an important factor associated to the interspecific differences of trace element concentrations in seabirds. However, traits other than feeding preferences (e.g. age) may also play an important role in the accumulation of these elements.

The Molar Ratio of N-terminal pro-B-type Natriuretic Peptide/B-type Natriuretic Peptide for Heart Failure-related Events in Stable Outpatients with Cardiovascular Risk Factors.

Objective B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) should be secreted from cardiomyocytes in response to increased myocardial wall stress in a molar ratio of 1.00; however, the calculated molar blood levels of NT-proBNP are often greater than those of BNP in routine clinical practice. The purpose of this study was to investigate the hypothesis that the molar ratio of NT-proBNP/BNP provides useful clinical information in stable outpatients with cardiovascular risk factors. Methods We measured both the BNP and NT-proBNP levels simultaneously in 551 consecutive, stable outpatients with at least one cardiovascular risk factor and then calculated the molar ratio of NT-proBNP/BNP. All patients were prospectively followed-up for the occurrence of heart failure (HF)-related events. Results Of those patients, 38 patients had an HF-related event. A multivariate Cox hazards analysis showed that the log (molar ratio of NT-proBNP/BNP) was an independent predictor of future HF-related events (p=0.039). A Kaplan-Meier analysis showed a significantly higher probability of HF-related events in patients with a higher molar ratio of NT-proBNP/BNP (≥1.70) (p<0.001). The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) for the molar ratio of NT-proBNP/BNP to predict HF-related events was 0.75 (p<0.001). The AUC of the ROC curve analysis with the molar ratio of NT-proBNP/BNP for the prediction of HF-related events was not significantly greater than that of BNP or NT-proBNP. Conclusion The molar ratio of NT-proBNP/BNP may be a significant prognostic factor for HF-related events.

Application of Taguchi Method in the Enzymatic Modification of Menhaden Oil to Incorporate Capric Acid

AbstractStructured lipids (SL) were produced using menhaden oil and capric acid or ethyl caprate as the substrate. Enzymatic reaction conditions were optimized using the Taguchi method L9 orthogonal array with three substrate molar ratio levels of capric acid or ethyl caprate to menhaden oil (1:1, 2:1, and 3:1), three enzyme load levels (5, 10, and 15% [w/w]), three temperature levels (40, 50, and 60 °C), and three reaction times (12, 24, 36 hours). Recombinant lipase from Candida antarctica, Lipozyme® 435, and sn‐1,3 specific Rhizomucor miehei lipase, Lipozyme® RM IM (Novozymes North America, Inc., Franklinton, NC, USA), were used as biocatalysts in both acidolysis and interesterification reactions. Total and sn‐2 fatty acid compositions, triacylglycerol (TAG) molecular species, thermal behavior, and oxidative stability were compared. Optimal conditions for all reactions were 3:1 substrate molar ratio, 10% [w/w] enzyme load, 60 °C, and 16 hours reaction time. Reactions with ethyl caprate incorporated significantly more C10:0, at 30.76 ± 1.15 and 28.63 ± 2.37 mol% versus 19.50 ± 1.06 and 9.81 ± 1.51 mol%, respectively, for both Lipozyme® 435 and Lipozyme® RM IM, respectively. Reactions with ethyl caprate as substrate and Lipozyme® 435 as biocatalyst produced more of the desired medium‐long‐medium (MLM)‐type TAGs with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) at sn‐2 and C10:0 at sn‐1,3 positions.

Dental Arch Dimensions of Nigerian Children with Hypertrophied Adenoids.

The study objective was to assess the effect of adenoid hypertrophy on the dental arch dimensions of children in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Ninety patients aged 3-12 years attending the Otorhinolaryngology Clinic at Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital Ile-Ife diagnosed as having hypertrophied adenoids and 90 children from the Child Dental Health Clinic were recruited as adenoid and control subjects respectively. Arch and palatal vault dimensions, including total arch length; inter-canine, inter-premolar, and inter-molar widths; palatal length; and palatal heights measured at three levels and palatal volume were determined for both groups from dental casts. Maxillary arch dimensions were shorter in the adenoid group than the control group; however, only total maxillary arch length was significantly shorter (p=0.049). Mandibular arch dimensions with the exception of inter-molar width were significantly shorter in the adenoid group (p<0.05). Adenoid subjects had significantly increased palatal heights at canine, premolar, and molar levels and reduced palatal volume compared to the control subjects (p<0.05). Adenoid subjects demonstrated shorter maxillary and mandibular arch dimensions compared with control subjects, with the differences being more evident in the lower arch. They also exhibited increased palatal heights at all levels and reduced palatal volume compared with control subjects.

Mapping of Complete Set of Ribose and Base Modifications of Yeast rRNA by RP-HPLC and Mung Bean Nuclease Assay.

Ribosomes are large ribonucleoprotein complexes that are fundamental for protein synthesis. Ribosomes are ribozymes because their catalytic functions such as peptidyl transferase and peptidyl-tRNA hydrolysis depend on the rRNA. rRNA is a heterogeneous biopolymer comprising of at least 112 chemically modified residues that are believed to expand its topological potential. In the present study, we established a comprehensive modification profile of Saccharomyces cerevisiae’s 18S and 25S rRNA using a high resolution Reversed-Phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC). A combination of mung bean nuclease assay, rDNA point mutants and snoRNA deletions allowed us to systematically map all ribose and base modifications on both rRNAs to a single nucleotide resolution. We also calculated approximate molar levels for each modification using their UV (254nm) molar response factors, showing sub-stoichiometric amount of modifications at certain residues. The chemical nature, their precise location and identification of partial modification will facilitate understanding the precise role of these chemical modifications, and provide further evidence for ribosome heterogeneity in eukaryotes.

Effect of zinc treatments on cadmium exposed periparturient bovine lymphocytes in vitro on their proliferation and superoxide dismutase (SOD) expression

This study was conducted to evaluate effect of cadmium (Cd) on lymphocyte proliferation and mRNA expression of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD) and to determine whether zinc (Zn) treatment in Cd-exposed lymphocytes can modulate lymphocyte proliferation and SOD expression. Blood samples were collected from crossbred transition dairy cow at –30, –15, 0, 15 and 30 days of calving and evaluated for lymphocytes proliferation and SOD expression. Isolated lymphocytes were cultured with 10–3, 10–4, 10–5 and 10–6 molar (M) levels of Cd for 72 h. Adverse effect of transitional stress and Cd on lymphocyte proliferation and mRNA SOD expression was counteracted by 50, 55 and 60 micromolar (µM) Zn. Mitogenic response of lymphocyte and mRNA expression of SOD reduced as the days of parturition advanced. Lymphocyte proliferation and mRNA SOD expression showed negative correlation with Cd levels. Treatment of Zn in the Cd-exposed lymphocyte culture improved lymphocyte proliferation and relative abundance of SOD mRNA expression. In summary, Zn can ameliorate adverse effect of transitional stress and Cd on lymphocyte proliferation and SOD expression in dairy cows.

In vitro effect of copper treatments on mitogenic response and superoxide dismutase expression of lead exposed leukocytes from periparturient dairy cows

The aim of this study was to evaluate whether copper (Cu) treatment in lead (Pb)-exposed lymphocytes can modulate their proliferation and superoxide dismutase (SOD) expression. Blood samples were collected from advanced pregnant crossbred dairy cows at –30, –15, 0, 15, and 30 days of calving and evaluated for lymphocytes proliferation and mRNA expression of SOD. A fixed number of lymphocytes (2×106) were cultured for 72 h with 10–4, 10–5, and 10–6 molar (M) levels of Pb. Pb-exposed lymphocytes were treated with 30, 35 and 40 micro molar (µM) Cu. Mitogenic response of lymphocytes and mRNA expression of SOD reduced as the days of parturition advanced and were noted to be lowest at the day of calving. Reduced mitogenic response of lymphocytes and mRNA expression of SOD was reported in Pb-treated groups as compared to control. Addition of Cu in the Pb- exposed lymphocytes culture improved lymphocytes proliferation and relative mRNA SOD expression. Lymphocytes proliferation and relative mRNA SOD expression was reported highest in 40 µM Cu-treated groups. These results indicated that Cu can ameliorate the adverse effects of Pb on lymphocytes proliferation and SOD expression in periparturient dairy cows.

Rapid and sensitive detection of bisphenol a from serum matrix

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disrupting compound that may have adverse developmental, reproductive, neurological, and immune system effects. Low-level exposure to BPA is ubiquitous in human populations due to its widespread use in consumer products. Therefore, highly sensitive methods are needed to quantify BPA in various matrices including water, serum, and food products. In this study, we developed a simple, rapid, highly sensitive and specific sensor based on an aptamer probe and AC electrokinetics capacitive sensing method that successfully detected BPA at femto molar (fM) levels, which is an improvement over prior work by a factor of 10. We were able to detect BPA spiked in human serum as well as in maternal and cord blood within 30s. The sensor is responsive to BPA down to femto molar levels, but not to structurally similar compounds including bisphenol F (BPF) or bisphenol S (BPS) even at much higher concentration. Further development of this platform may prove useful in monitoring exposure to BPA and other small molecules in various matrices.

Glycerol enhances fungal germination at the water-activity limit for life.

SummaryFor the most‐extreme fungal xerophiles, metabolic activity and cell division typically halts between 0.700 and 0.640 water activity (approximately 70.0–64.0% relative humidity). Here, we investigate whether glycerol can enhance xerophile germination under acute water‐activity regimes, using an experimental system which represents the biophysical limit of Earth's biosphere. Spores from a variety of species, including Aspergillus penicillioides, Eurotium halophilicum, Xerochrysium xerophilum (formerly Chrysosporium xerophilum) and Xeromyces bisporus, were produced by cultures growing on media supplemented with glycerol (and contained up to 189 mg glycerol g dry spores−1). The ability of these spores to germinate, and the kinetics of germination, were then determined on a range of media designed to recreate stresses experienced in microbial habitats or anthropogenic systems (with water‐activities from 0.765 to 0.575). For A. penicillioides, Eurotium amstelodami, E. halophilicum, X. xerophilum and X. bisporus, germination occurred at lower water‐activities than previously recorded (0.640, 0.685, 0.651, 0.664 and 0.637 respectively). In addition, the kinetics of germination at low water‐activities were substantially faster than those reported previously. Extrapolations indicated theoretical water‐activity minima below these values; as low as 0.570 for A. penicillioides and X. bisporus. Glycerol is present at high concentrations (up to molar levels) in many types of microbial habitat. We discuss the likely role of glycerol in expanding the water‐activity limit for microbial cell function in relation to temporal constraints and location of the microbial cell or habitat. The findings reported here have also critical implications for understanding the extremes of Earth's biosphere; for understanding the potency of disease‐causing microorganisms; and in biotechnologies that operate at the limits of microbial function.

JS ISH-ECCR-4 THE PLASMA ALDOSTERONE / ANGIOTENSIN II RATIO FOR THE SCREENING OF SECONDARY HYPERTENSION

Primary aldosteronism (PA) is severe form of hypertension characterized by a strongly increased aldosterone secretion mediated by adenomas or other forms of adrenal hyper-activity. Once detected, PA can be usually cured by either surgical intervention or by appropriate pharmacologic treatments. The incidence of PA among hypertensive patients varies strongly between different studies, which is in part caused by the complex state-of-the-art testing procedure that is unfortunately far away from being a versatile PA screening tool. Despite strong limitations regarding selectivity and the interference with multiple anti-hypertensive drugs, the antibody-based determination of the aldosterone-renin-ratio (ARR) is widely used in the diagnostic process of PA. However, there is still a strong demand for accurate, reliable and patient friendly PA case detection. The implementation of novel LC-MS/MS based assays for quantification of aldosterone might help to improve the power of the ARR as a diagnostic tool for PA. However, there is a big need for a versatile PA screening test that doesn’t interfere with anti-hypertensive treatments and therefore allows the clear identification of PA patients without complex and risky treatment adaptions being necessary in the course of the diagnostic process. The Aldosterone-to-Angiotensin-II-Ratio (AA2-Ratio) is a novel LC-MS/MS based high-throughput test for PA that combines the molar plasma levels of aldosterone and physiologically active angiotensin II into a single dimension-free diagnostic value. The availability of innovative diagnostic approaches for biochemical analysis of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone-System paved the way for Angiotensin peptides to be used in clinical routine testing by overcoming pre-analytic issues regarding analyte stability. In addition to overall RAS activity and aldosterone levels, the AA2-Ratio integrates the activity of all plasma enzymes involved in angiotensin II metabolism and accurately estimates of the portion of physiologically active angiotensin II in a patient sample. The performance of the AA2-Ratio is superior to the ARR in terms of the diagnostic window, which can be explained by the much closer functional link between aldosterone and angiotensin II comparing to the molecular distant relationship between aldosterone and renin. It has been shown that the correlation between renin concentration or activity and angiotensin II is poor especially in patients treated with anti-hypertensive drugs. In sharp contrast, the AA2-Ratio does not interfere with first line anti-hypertensive drugs including ACE inhibitors. The AA2-Ratio has the potential to be superior to the ARR in terms of its ability to better reflecting the activity of the true direct circulating regulator of aldosterone (i.e. angiotensin II rather than renin), and being unaffected by antihypertensive medications including ACE inhibitors. Data obtained in proof-of-concept studies proved the AA2-Ratio to be a powerful and cost-effective diagnostic tool for the diagnosis of PA among hypertensive patients. The stability of the AA2-Ratio in the presence of ACE-inhibition points to a potential use of the AA2-Ratio PA screening in hypertensive patients without ACE-inhibitor discontinuation.

In situ immobilization of lysine decarboxylase on a biopolymer by fusion with phasin: Immobilization of CadA on intracellular PHA

Cadaverine is a useful chemical that can be produced by lysine decarboxylase up to molar concentration levels. To develop a convenient and reusable production process, we performed intracellular immobilization of lysine decarboxylase (CadA) using poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P(3HB)) and PhaP1 (P(3HB) granule-associated protein) from Ralstonia eutropha. By adding 591bp of the entire phaP1 gene sequence to the 3′ end of the cadA gene, CadA was successfully fused to PhaP1. The phasin-fused CadA bound to the intracellular P(3HB) granules, which enabled the reuse of CadA in repetitive enzyme reactions. Although immobilization of the CadA–P(3HB) complex was not effective over extended temperature and pH ranges, the immobilized CadA exhibited increased thermal stability, with a half-life of 70h at 50°C. The CadA–P(3HB) complex achieved a 75–80% conversion yield over five reaction cycles without laborious immobilization steps. This study indicates the feasibility of in situ immobilization of lysine decarboxylase by phasin fusion.

The Molecular Basis of Neural Memory. Part 4. “Binary” Computation vs “Multinary” Mentation

Background: What is neural memory? How does it differ from binary encoded, computer memory? Attempts to model brain function using contemporary computer hardware and (information) theory suggests the need for a new paradigm. The disparity between (dry) electronic devices that “compute” in binary format (n=2) and biologic (wet) neural nets that mentate in “multinary” format (i.e. n>10), reflects drastically differing recall systems. Focusing on codes, we discuss Morse and Braille codes and note that a binary bit (0 /1) cannot encode a psychic (emotive) state. Between 0 and 1, there is no code for “emotions”. Hypothesis: “Form follows function”. There are no “naked neurons”. Neuron morphology (extended shape, large surface area) implies intimate contact with its surroundings. Based on observed morphological and biochemical evidence, we propose a tripartite, biochemical process for encoding neural memory, whereby the surrounding “neural extracellular matrix” (nECM), functions as a “memory material” to encode and store cognitive units of information (cuinfo). The dopants (>10 neuro-metals, >90 neuro-transmitters (NTs)) within vesicles ejected by neurons into the nECM, provide the neuron with Avogadro scale (A=6x10 23 ) “dopants” for encoding emotive memory. Calculations using experimentally determined (molar) levels of metals and NTs, reveal astronomical coding options and capacity. Conclusion: Neurons collectively generate memory, using both electrodynamic and chemodynamic signals. The NTs link physiology to psyche, functioning in memory as signifiers (enciphers) of emotions. An algorithm, blueprint, calculus, fractal, mimetic or simulation that ignores {neuron-nECM-NT} interactions, cannot emulate mental processes of the brain, recalling emotive memory to survive. Keywords: Neural memory, code, cognitive information, mentation, tripartite mechanism, cuinfo, feelings, emotions.

Heat induced aggregation of gold nanorods for rapid visual detection of lysozyme

Gold nanorods have been nominated as propitious candidates for nanobiodiagnostic applications. Herein, a technique has been introduced for rapid visual detection of lysozyme, as its high level of excretion in biological fluids is a characteristic sign of leukemia and kidney disorders. Gold nanorods were biofunctionalized with lysozyme aptamer and characterized with UV–Visible and FTIR spectroscopy, zeta potential analyzer and transmission electron microscopy. Exposure of the nanoprobe to nano molar levels of lysozyme (20nmoll−1) lead to dictated aggregation of the nanostructures at ambient temperature; which was significantly improved by heat induced morphological perturbations and rapid detection by the naked eye (down to pico molar level). Qualitative analysis of Acute myeloid leukemia, Acute lymphocytic leukemia and Lymphoma blood serums showed sensitivity and specificity of the fabricated aptasensor under both temperature conditions. This report encourages utilization of heat-induced aggregation of gold nanorods as a promising nanodiagnostic technique for the emerging nanotechnologies.

Electrochemical Separation and Purification of Astatine for Radiopharmaceutical Application

The second longest lived isotope Astatine (211At: T1/2=7.5 h), is one the most promising α-emitters for targeted cancer radiotherapy. The liquid/liquid extraction method has been shown to provide good separation of 211At from bismuth metal. However, of the liquid/liquid (L/L) extraction (separation) steps [1] used in the current manual isolation procedure presents a significant challenge due to the nature of the diisopropyl ether / hydrochloric acid (DIPE/HCl) and diisopropyl ether / sodium hydroxide (DIPE/NaOH) mixtures. The present work is focused on to evaluate the feasibility of electrochemical methods in the purification of 211At. This approach will be an alternative to hydrogen astatide (H211At) wet distillation. At the present time, Bi (III) is considered the primary contaminant from which 211At must be electrochemically purified. The initial electrochemical studies were conducted with iodine as an astatine segregate in bismuth solution. As the concentration of astatine in the original solution is much lower than micro molar levels, there are two different approaches have been adopted; (i) separation of bismuth from the original solution [Ref 1; step 4] through electrodeposition and (ii) direct extraction of iodine from the original solution [Ref 1; step 3 or 4]. Figure 1(a) shows the cyclic voltammograms (CV) for bismuth on various substrate electrodes; namely Pt, Au and glassy carbon (GC). In these, the GC substrate found to be the suitable martial than others, which could be due to surface nature of carbon. In the case second approach, initially, iodide separation was carried out without bismuth in an acidic electrolyte with various concentrations of iodide to identify the suitable substrate material and minimum separation levels. Figure 1(b) shows the model CV for iodide on Pt electrode, surprisingly iodine deposit was also observed at the working electrode. Conversely, there are no characteristic electrochemical peaks and deposits were observed for GC and Au. This study indicates iodide can be extracted with Pt electrodes and Pt catalyzes the reactions. Acknowledgements Financial support from the Department of Energy (DOE) is greatly acknowledged. Selvarani Ganesan is thankful for subcontract from the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (Contract No. 244236; PI: Matthew J O'Hara). Reference E.R. Balkin, D.K. Hamlin, K. Gagnon, M.-K Chyan, S. Pal, S. Watanabe, and D.S. Wilbur, Appl. Sci., 3 (2013) 636-655. Figure 1