Moisture Transport Model Research Articles

Numerical modeling of concrete beams subjected to partial wetting and drying cycles

Concrete structures are commonly subjected to cycles of wetting and drying, which can have a significant impact on their behavior. However, experimental data on the effects of wetting and drying on concrete beams are scarce. This study presents the results of a 4-year experimental program on 2.5 m span concrete beams with heights of 100 mm, 150 mm, and 200 mm subjected to one-sided wetting and drying cycles. Vertical deflection of the beams was monitored throughout the experiment, and moisture mass balance was measured on companion specimens.The behavior of the specimens was experimentally assessed, and subsequently numerical models using coupled hygromechanical finite element simulations were developed. The purpose of the simulations was to verify the prediction capabilities of the established constitutive models for moisture transport and creep and shrinkage of concrete and, if needed, to propose necessary corrections to the constitutive models.

Characteristics of soil moisture transport in the aeration zone of subsidence areas under the disturbance of coal seam mining

High-intensity coal mining has induced a series of ecological and environmental problems issues, including surface subsidence, the development of ground cracks, and the deterioration of vegetation. The disruption of water circulation systems induced by mining, such as perched groundwater, groundwater of aeration zone, and phreatic water, is the root cause of vegetation withering. The aeration zone serves as a crucial nexus in the process of water cycling and exerts a significant influence on soil fertility. To explore the characteristics of soil moisture transport in subsidence areas under the mining disturbance, on-site monitoring of the size and morphology characteristics of subsidence areas and ground cracks was conducted in typical mining areas in Inner Mongolia, China. Subsequently, a typical soil moisture transport model was constructed in subsidence areas, the soil moisture transport patterns under the influence of different types of subsidence and cracks were analyzed, and the influence law of soil damage on soil moisture transport in the aerated zone was clarified. The results indicate that (1) Based on the occurrence and distribution characteristics of subsidence cracks, the subsidence area can be divided into tension zone, compression zone, and neutral zone; the ground cracks are divided into permanent tension cracks and dynamic cracks. (2) The drought stress effect of soil in the subsidence area is significant. Under the influence of soil structure variation, the water-holding capacity of the soil in the subsidence area decreases, and the soil moisture dissipation is strong. The soil moisture transport rate in the aeration zone of the subsidence area is ranked as follows: tension zone > neutral zone > compression zone. (3) Ground cracks can exacerbate the soil moisture transport rate in the aeration zone. After 15 d of crack appearance, the soil moisture transport reaches a relatively stable state, and the soil moisture transport rate in the surface layer of the crack is the fastest, and the loss of soil moisture is the most significant. The crack effect is not significant beyond 100 cm from the crack. This study provides a theoretical and data support for soil and vegetation remediation in mining subsidence areas.

Modeling of Concrete Deterioration under External Sulfate Attack and Drying-Wetting Cycles: A Review.

This paper comprehensively summarizes moisture transport, ion transport, and mechanical damage models applied to concrete under sulfate attack and drying-wetting cycles. It highlights the essential aspects and principles of each model, emphasizing their significance in understanding the movement of moisture and ions, as well as the resulting mechanical damage within the concrete during these degradation processes. The paper critically analyzes the assumptions made in each model, shedding light on their limitations and implications for prediction accuracy. Two primary challenges faced by current models under sulfate attack and drying-wetting cycles are identified: the limited consideration of the coupled effects of chemical and physical attacks from sulfate, and the unclear mechanism of the sulfate attacks. Future research directions are proposed, focusing on exploring the transport mechanism of sulfate ions under various driving forces and further clarifying the crystallization process and expansion damage mechanism in concrete pores. Addressing these research directions will advance our understanding of sulfate attack under drying-wetting cycles, leading to improved models and mitigation strategies for enhancing the durability and performance of concrete structures.

Three-dimensional modeling of moisture transport in wood using near-infrared hyperspectral imaging and X-ray computed tomography in conjunction with finite element analysis

In past studies, finite element analysis (FEA) methods have been used to simulate the thermal and moisture coupling of wood. However, challenges remain in achieving high-quality three-dimensional (3D) simulations, mainly because of the heterogeneous and complex structure of wood and its difficult-to-detect internal structure, which makes modeling challenging, in addition to the lack of robust experimental techniques to validate simulation results. In this study, the FEA simulation model was refined by combining X-ray computed tomography (CT) and near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI). CT was used to probe the 3D density of wood, and a novel FEA tetrahedral mesh was constructed based on the results. The NIR-HSI method visualizes the moisture distribution during adsorption and desorption inside the wood. This result is then used to adjust the parameters of the FEA simulation model and as a reference value to evaluate the simulation results. The visualization and simulation results fit well with the theoretical properties. The simulation results can more accurately reflect the spatial distribution and transfer trend of wood moisture at different points in time. Therefore, the CT and NIR-HSI-based 3D heat and moisture-coupled FEA model of wood proposed in this study can be used as a basis for optimizing drying parameters to provide high-quality wood.

Numerical simulation of CLT moisture uptake and dry-out following water infiltration through end-grain surfaces

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) offers the potential to construct advanced load-bearing walls and floors made of wood, as its larger dimensions and homogenized material properties expands the application possibilities. As for wood in general, CLT can be negatively affected by moisture. End-grain wetting of CLT coupled with conditions that trap moisture can be particularly problematic due to hindered drying. However, CLT end-grain wetting and subsequent moisture dry-out are hardly investigated and conventional models have not been able to simulate these conditions sufficiently. Here, we show that the moisture uptake and dry-out under this unfavorable condition can be realistically simulated using a moisture transport model including free water. We modeled a basic configuration of one-week wetting, followed by two weeks of dry-out in different climatic conditions. To refine the simulations, the mass transfer coefficients of water vapor and free water were calibrated. In a sensitivity analysis, the influence of both coefficients on moisture development was investigated, revealing that the most significant effect on moisture changes originates from the mass transfer coefficient of free water. Furthermore, the influence of glue lines connecting the layers of CLT panels on moisture transport was examined. The results suggest that the glue line has a minor influence on the moisture behavior of CLT surface layers, but the effects increase towards the middle layer.

Moisture transports in high-cycle compressive fatigue-damaged concrete

Concrete structures in marine environments, e.g. bridges, usually undergo fatigue loads induced by vehicle transportations. Fatigue loads may lead to growth of micro-cracks in concrete which would initiate the additional transport channels and thus accelerate the penetration of moisture and some other aggressive agents into concrete This paper presents an investigation on the moisture transports in fatigue-damaged concrete. Axial compressive fatigue tests were conducted to obtain concrete with uniform compressive fatigue damage and residual strains were used as indexes to estimate the fatigue damage degrees of concrete. Water absorption and air drying tests were subsequently designed and carried out on fatigue-damaged concrete. Test results showed that the absorption rate increased with the residual strain and moisture could evaporate out of the exposed surface more easily of fatigue-damaged concrete than non-damaged concrete, which indicated that degradation of impermeability performance of fatigue-damaged concrete. In addition, prediction model of moisture transport in fatigue-damaged concrete was developed based on assumption of fictitious crushing band, and the accuracy of model was verified based on experimental results. The moisture transports in gradient fatigue-damaged concrete were further investigated based on the validated model with two damage indexes, i.e. residual strain at the exposed edge and residual curvature. The numerical results showed that the moisture transport rates are slightly decrease by the increase of residual curvature as the residual strain at the exposed edge was fixed. As compared to residual curvature, the rates of moisture transport in gradient fatigue-damaged concrete were more sensitive to the residual strains at the exposed edges.

Moisture absorption of an aerogel-based coating system under different wetting scenarios

Aerogel-based coating mortars (ACM-systems) provide energy-efficient retrofitting solutions for masonry buildings, with thermal conductivities (30–50 mW/(m·K)) comparable to traditional insulation materials. However, limited knowledge on their moisture absorption under rainwater wetting hinders the moisture-safe design of building envelopes incorporating these mortars. Thus, this study investigated the moisture absorption of an ACM-system under three laboratory-created wetting scenarios. A small-scale setup was developed to simulate runoff wetting based on typical wind-driven rain intensities in Sweden, enabling continuous monitoring of moisture conditions during wetting and drying. Two complementary capillary suction experiments under zero (free suction) and elevated hydrostatic pressure explored additional wetting scenarios. The impact of water-repellent paint and surface cracks was also assessed, as previous testing focused on undamaged ACM-systems. Among the three wetting scenarios, runoff wetting resulted in the lowest moisture absorption by the undamaged ACM-system. Water-repellent paint (sd = 0.01 m) reduced moisture uptake by up to 15% during runoff and 50% during free capillary suction for the same system. Horizontal or vertical surface cracks of 1 ± 0.5 mm width increased water absorption by 3–5 times during prolonged runoff wetting, comparable to suction at elevated hydrostatic pressure. Furthermore, a trial was done to verify a simplified numerical moisture transport model using the runoff experiment. The results highlighted the necessity for future model refinement and advanced moisture transport modeling in the ACM-system. The developed small-scale setup facilitated easy use and real-time monitoring of moisture conditions during wetting and drying. Future development should include wind-driven rain simulation alongside the existing runoff wetting scenario.

Enhancement of a multi-species reactive transport model for cement-based materials under cyclic wetting and drying conditions

To understand the underlying phenomena that drive concrete deterioration under cyclic environmental conditions in the marine environment, a reactive transport model (RTM) for unsaturated cement-based materials has been established in this study, including multi-ionic and moisture transport coupled with a chemical equilibrium computation. The two-phase moisture transport model, which considers pore structure changes, is introduced with capillary pressure as the primary variable parameter. The modified Poisson-Nernst-Planck (PNP) equations were illustrated for multi-ionic transport through pore solution under unsaturated conditions. A modelling approach for moisture conductivity based on the pore structure and moisture storage was presented to account for pore structure changes on the mass transports. The consideration of boundary conditions and moisture flux through the exposed surface is demonstrated for wetting and drying conditions, separately. Numerical results for mortar samples subjected to NaCl solutions under various cyclic wetting and drying conditions were in good agreement with experimentally measured moisture gain and total chloride content. Under more prolonged wetting conditions, the deeper influence depth and a wider range of moisture fluctuation lead to an increase in concrete deterioration. For all cyclic wetting conditions, the precipitation of Friedel's salt is predicted, which subsequently limits the transport of chloride ions to deeper depths from the exposed surface. A peak in the chloride profile is observed near the exposed surface. Meanwhile, the peak region continuously expands and moves deeper into the specimens with increasing wetting time duration and exposure times, consistent with Friedel's salt precipitation. In contrast, the chloride content near the exposure surface shows a significant decrease due to the decomposition of the C–S–H phase caused by ion leaching and carbonation of the exposed surface.

Benchmark VERCORS 2022: blind prediction of time-dependent behavior of concrete containment building with low and high-fidelity models

The VERCORS program aims to acquire an extensive experimental dataset collected to provide a solid basis for numerical modeling of concrete containment buildings (CCBs). In order to cover the entire life-span of a real containment, the measurements are done on 3× smaller mock-up which leads to 9-fold acceleration of all processes related to drying. The goal for the participants of the third VERCORS benchmark was to predict the behaviour of the CCB based on standard laboratory measurements on VERCORS concrete. The previous paper [1] presented the calibration procedure of material models for moisture transport and time-dependent behavior of concrete and summarized the results obtained with a computationally efficient low-fidelity model (LFM). The present paper compares the responses of the LFM and a high-fidelity model (HFM) with a detailed geometry of the entire containment and presents a comparison with the experimental data collected over the last 8 years on the VERCORS mockup.

Mathematical Simulation of Honeycomb Weathering via Moisture Transport and Salt Deposition

Honeycomb weathering is a common phenomenon found on various rock surfaces all around the world. However, honeycomb formation mechanisms are still poorly understood. In this study, we propose a model describing moisture transport within the sandstone and erosion resulting from salt deposition during evaporation of moisture off the rock surface. The moisture transport model is based on the non-linear diffusion equation, where the volumetric moisture content is a combined parameter accounting for the moisture and gas (vapor) content. The moisture transport model accounts for the several-orders-of-magnitude decrease in moisture diffusivity, observed during drying. It was assumed that erosion occurs when the evaporation front is located close to the rock surface. The depth of erosion is proportional to the moisture flow rate through the drying surface. The ABAQUS finite-element software suite was used for numerical solution of the non-linear diffusion equation. The iterative scheme of erosion simulation for different drying cycles was implemented using the Python programming language. Computations were conducted in the 2D setting for the square model with dimensions of 50 mm × 50 mm. Simulation results demonstrate the possibility of obtaining various landform shapes (honeycombs, tafoni) by varying only the value of the distribution of moisture content at the bottom side, simulating the rate of internal wetting of rock.

Moisture Ingress and Distribution in Bifacial Silicon Photovoltaics

Water participates in multiple modes of degradation in photovoltaic (PV) modules including encapsulant yellowing, delamination, and contact corrosion. To mitigate moisture-induced degradation, we must understand the kinetics of moisture in state-of-the-art encapsulants and module architectures. In this article, we present a robust optical method to quantify water content in the front and rear side encapsulants of bifacial silicon PV modules, then use such measurements to validate a model for simulating water concentration in these modules. First, we quantify the solubility of water in four modern encapsulants: ethylene vinyl acetate and polyolefin, each with and without UV-blocking additives. Second, we use water reflectometry detection to measure the diffusion of moisture within glass-backsheet modules as a function of time and environmental condition. Third, we present a model of moisture transport in bifacial silicon PV modules and show it to be consistent with our measurements. Crucially, our methodology enables the separate evaluation of water content in the front encapsulant and the rear polymers within glass-backsheet modules. Overall, our work presents a quantitative picture of moisture in emerging module architectures and a framework to extend this approach other encapsulants and module designs.

Interannual variation of moisture transport to Siberia originated from Arctic Ocean evaluated by moisture transport model

Interannual variation of moisture transport to Siberia originated from Arctic Ocean evaluated by moisture transport model

The distribution and transport of water in oil paintings: A numerical moisture diffusion model

Oil paintings are complex, multi-layered systems that are prone to chemical degradation. While it is increasingly recognised that water plays an important role in these degradation reactions, little is known about moisture concentrations in oil paint systems and their temporal variation in response to fluctuating ambient air humidity. This knowledge is necessary to further preventive conservation, specifically to establish optimal environmental conditions to safeguard works of art for future generations. We developed a transient one-dimensional moisture transport model based on Fickian diffusion enabling the integration of experimentally recorded relative humidity data. Moisture sorption and transport data for painting materials have been reviewed from literature showing that each component of a painting has rather distinct properties. Including the properties of the individual layers enabled predicting the behaviour of a multi-layered painting system. A sensitivity study indicated that the response of a multilayer is determined by the combination of diffusion coefficients, isotherm shapes, maximum water contents, layer thicknesses, period of RH fluctuation and stacking order of the layers. Finally, the model was employed to investigate a case study of 18th-century painted wall hangings in a historic house to illustrate the insights that can be gained from this approach and the types of conservation-related questions that can be answered.

Enhanced Arctic moisture transport toward Siberia in autumn revealed by tagged moisture transport model experiment

Rapid Arctic warming has altered the regional hydrological cycle through reduction in Arctic sea ice. Observational and modeling efforts provided evidence that the enhanced evaporation from the Arctic Ocean could increase snowfall over high latitude terrestrial zones. However, questions remain regarding the amount of equatorward moisture transport and its change over the decadal timescale. Here we show that the transport of atmospheric moisture to Siberia that originated from Arctic Ocean evaporation has increased significantly in autumn to early winter during 1981–2019 when substantial sea ice retreat was observed. The enhanced Arctic moisture content is found in western Siberia in September, consistent with the observed increase in snow cover investigated in earlier studies. Meanwhile, the annual maximum daily amount of Arctic moisture shows a sharp increase in eastern Siberia during October–December associated with cyclonic activities along coastal regions. Our results suggest the importance of monitoring equatorward moisture transport during snow accumulation seasons because it could enhance local snowstorms as evaporation from the Arctic Ocean increases in the near future.

Numerical Modelling of Moisture Transport Between Two Enclosures Connected by a Tube

The electronics is protected using plastic or metallic enclosures. Although, the electronics is protected by the enclosures from the surrounding environment, the moisture can still enter the enclosure via gasket, plastic enclosure walls, cable feedthroughs. The moisture existing inside enclosure may condense on PCBA or components due to a temperature changes or different temperature levels and can lead to a moisture-related failures. The temperature in the enclosure is also very dependent on the location and the heating of electronic components. Furthermore, the electronics can be mounted nearby to other heating or cooling components in the complex mechanical systems, such as water pump or water meter. The paper concerns the complex transient heat and mass transfer processes between two connected enclosures with one being warm and another cold. The objective of the paper is to develop an in-house code based on the RC approach for predicting and studying the temperature and moisture behaviour inside two connected enclosures. The developed RC model combines one-dimensional description and lumped analysis for heat and mass transport. The modelling of temperature and moisture response is carried out under non-isothermal B3 STANAG ambient conditions. Moreover, the effect of different material of warm enclosure and the heating are considered.

A model for multiphase moisture and heat transport below and above the saturation point of deformable and swelling wood fibers – I: Mass transport

A thermodynamically consistent model for heat and mass transfer in deformable wood fibers is developed. The hybrid mixture theory is used to model the material as a mixture of three phases, consisting of a solid, a liquid and a gas phase. The solid phase consists of dry fibers and bound water constituents, whereas the gas phase has dry air and water vapor constituents. Emphasis is put on the mass flow and mass exchange of moisture in the material both below and above the saturation point of the solid wood fibers. Generalized forms of Fick’s, Darcy’s and Fourier’s laws are derived, and the chemical potential is used as a driving force for mass flow. Mass exchange due to sorption and evaporation/condensation processes is implemented in the model, where hysteretic properties both within and above the hygroscopic moisture range are described using Frandsen’s hysteresis model. Moisture induced swelling/shrinkage is included where the porosity of the material can vary. A large strain setting formulated for general orthotropy is adopted for the mechanical deformations. To show the performance of the resulting model, it is implemented in a finite element method framework and used to simulate the processes of heat and moisture transport dynamics of a wood sample subjected to drying from an over-hygroscopic moisture state.

A model for multiphase moisture and heat transport below and above the saturation point of deformable and swelling wood fibers-II: Hygro-mechanical response

A non-linear elastic constitutive model for a swelling/shrinking orthotropic wood matrix is proposed. The model is thermodynamically consistent, derived based on the principles of continuum mechanics and the hybrid mixture theory. Moisture induced strains are introduced considering finite deformations by assuming a multiplicative split of the deformation gradient tensor into a swelling and an elastic part. Novel definitions of the Cauchy stress tensor and the moisture-dependent elastic material tangent matrix are obtained. The model is coupled to a multi-phase transient mass and heat transport model developed in Part I of this work. In this part of the work 2-D and 3-D test examples are used to describe the ability of the model to simulate moisture-induced distortions when drying wood within the hygroscopic and also from the over-hygroscopic moisture ranges. Despite deriving the model considering wood, the obtained constitutive relations can be suitably adopted to other orthotropic porous materials displaying properties similar to that of wood.

Analysis of the main source regions of moisture transport events with the new ESA CCI/CM‐SAF total column water vapour climate data record (v2)

AbstractThis study makes use of the new total column water vapour data record (CDR‐2 (v2)), developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) in coordination with the Satellite Application Facility on Climate Monitoring (CM SAF), to analyse the adequacy of the integrated vertical water vapour column (IWV) data provided by the European Centre for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) ERA5 and ERA‐Interim reanalyses in regions of critical interest for moisture transport mechanisms. This information is critical for the initialization of moisture transport models—both Eulerian and Lagrangian—used to study the main mechanisms and predict the future evolution of moisture transport events. In particular, almost 40,000 atmospheric river (AR) and nocturnal low‐level jet (NLLJ) events identified on a global scale between 2002 and 2017 have been used to study the variability between the cited reanalyses and CDR‐2, in terms of both bias in the observed values of IWV during each particular event and daily temporal correlation fields. Although some notable discrepancies are reported in the main tropical rainforest regions, it is observed that, in regions of high interest for both ARs and NLLJs, the degree of agreement between the reanalyses and CDR‐2 is high. The bias observed in the regions of interest is generally low, and the temporal correlation in the IWV fields is above 0.8 in most areas. ERA5 appears to show slightly better performance than ERA‐Interim when resolving the moisture column, and both show greater similarity to CDR‐2 in the midlatitudes compared with tropical regions. The probability density functions constructed on an event‐to‐event basis reinforce these ideas. We conclude that the evaluations presented here using CDR‐2 serve to strengthen avaliable evidence that the ECMWF reanalyses can safely be used in the initializations of Lagrangian dispersion models and Eulerian moisture tracer simulations—commonly used for the analysis of main advection mechanisms—in the vast majority of regions critical to the study of ARs and LLJs. They can also safely be used for the detection of moisture source–sink regions in the study of the global hydrological cycle in these regions.

On the Applicability of the Coarse Grained Coupled CFD-DEM Model to Predict the Heat Transfer During the Fluidized Bed Drying of Pharmaceutical Granules.

Fluidized bed dryer often used in the pharmaceutical industry for drying of wet granules. Coupled computational fluid dynamics (CFD) - discrete element method (DEM) is frequently used to model the drying process because of its ability to obtain the relevant information at the particle level. However, it becomes almost impossible to model the industrial scale fluidized bed dryer using the coupled CFD-DEM method because of the presence of large number of particles [Formula: see text]. To reduce the number of particles to be tracked in the simulation, coarse grained coupled CFD-DEM method was developed by researchers where a certain number of particles of the original system was represented by a relatively bigger particle in the coarse-grained system. The appropriate scaling of the particle-particle and particle-fluid interaction forces is necessary to make sure that the dynamics of the coarse-grained particles/parcels accurately represent the dynamics of the original particles. The coarse-graining of the drying process of pharmaceutical granules during fluidization needs systematic coarse-graining of the momentum, heat, and solvent vapor transfer process. A coarse grained coupled CFD-DEM method was used to model the momentum and heat transfer during the fluidization of pharmaceutical granules. It was shown that the heat transfer during the fluidization of large number of particles could be predicted by simulating a smaller number of bigger particles with appropriate scaling of particle-particle heat and momentum transfer, and particle-fluid heat and momentum transfer at significantly smaller computational time. This model can be further extended by including a coarse-grained moisture transport model in future.

A Validated Model, Scalability, and Plant Growth Results for an Agrivoltaic Greenhouse

We developed an agrivoltaic greenhouse (a ‘test cell’) that partially trapped waste heat from two photovoltaic (PV) panels. These panels served as parts of the roof of the enclosure to extend the growing season. Relative humidity, internal air temperature, incident solar radiation, wind speed, and wind direction were measured for one year. A locally 1-D transient heat and moisture transport model, as well as a shadowing model, was developed and validated with experimental data. The models were used to investigate the effects of altering various parameters of the greenhouse in a scalability study. The design kept test cell air temperatures generally above ambient throughout the year, with the test cell temperature below freezing for 36% less of the year than ambient. Plant growth experiments showed that kale, Brassica oleraceae, a shade-tolerant plant, can be grown within the test cell throughout the winter. The simulations showed that enlarging the greenhouse will increase cell air temperatures but that powering an electric load from the PV panels will reduce cell air temperatures.