Modulation Transfer Function Data Research Articles

A Monte Carlo study of the impact of phosphor optical properties on EPID imaging performance

We have developed a Monte Carlo computational model of a clinically employed electronic portal imaging device (EPID), and demonstrated the impact of phosphor optical properties on the imaging performance. The EPID model was built with Geant4 application for tomographic emission. Both radiative and optical transport were included in the model. Modulation transfer function (MTF), normalized noise-power spectrum times the incident x-ray fluence (qNNPS), and detective quantum efficiency (DQE) were calculated for simulated and measured data, and their agreement was quantified by the normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE). MTF was computed using a 100 µm wide slit tilted by 1.5° and qNNPS was estimated using the Fujita–Lubberts–Swank method. DQE was calculated from MTF and qNNPS data. The NRMSE value was 0.0467 for MTF, 0.0217 for qNNPS, and 0.0885 for DQE, showing good agreement between measurement and simulation. Five major optical properties, phosphor grain size, phosphor thickness, phosphor refractive index, binder refractive index, and packing ratio were tested for their influence on the qNNPS, MTF, and DQE(0) of the model. Generally, the effect on the qNNPS is greater than MTF, and no impact on DQE(0), except from phosphor thickness, was observed. Multiple applications, such as imager design optimization and investigations of the dosimetric performance, are expected to benefit from the validated model.

Using the Medipix3 detector for direct electron imaging in the range 60 keV to 200 keV in electron microscopy

Hybrid pixel sensor technology such as the Medipix3 represents a unique tool for electron imaging. We have investigated its performance as a direct imaging detector using a Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) which incorporated a Medipix3 detector with a 300 μm thick silicon layer compromising of 256×256 pixels at 55 μm pixel pitch. We present results taken with the Medipix3 in Single Pixel Mode (SPM) with electron beam energies in the range, 60–200 keV . Measurements of the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) and the Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE) were investigated. At a given beam energy, the MTF data was acquired by deploying the established knife edge technique. Similarly, the experimental data required to determine DQE was obtained by acquiring a stack of images of a focused beam and of free space (flatfield) to determine the Noise Power Spectrum (NPS).

Repeatability and reproducibility of MTF, NPS and DQE in Full Field Mammography for baseline setting

The European guidelines for Full Field Digital Mammography1 recommend using performance indicators such as Modulation transfer function (MTF), Noise Power Spectrum (NPS) and Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE). This study assessed the setup variables for each, examining the repeatability and reproducibility to inform on Quality Control setup and tolerance establishment. A Siemens Novation system was used, with W/Rh tube potential 28 kV, tube current 50 mAs, achieving an output of 50–100 μGy at the detector1. A 150 × 150 mm Cu plate of 1 mm thickness was positioned on the bucky1,2, with 2 × 1 mm Al plates at the tube head1,3. MTF, NPS and DQE were assessed for repeatability, with and without moving the Cu plate, varying the angle between 0 and 15 degrees and varying output (78–704 μGy). MTF showed little variance with angle ( ⩽ 10°) varying between 1 and 4% for the 0–7 lp/mm. NPS showed to be repeatable with confidence Interval (CI) of 2.50 × 10−5%. MTF data variance with angle showed a confidence level

A novel multilayer MV imager computational model for component optimization

A novel Megavoltage (MV) multilayer imager (MLI) design featuring higher detective quantum efficiency and lower noise than current conventional MV imagers in clinical use has been recently reported. Optimization of the MLI design for multiple applications including tumor tracking, MV-CBCT and portal dosimetry requires a computational model that will provide insight into the physics processes that affect the overall and individual components' performance. The purpose of the current work was to develop and validate a comprehensive computational model that can be used for MLI optimization. The MLI model was built using the Geant4 Application for Tomographic Emission (GATE) application. The model includes x-ray and charged-particle interactions as well as the optical transfer within the phosphor. A first prototype MLI device featuring a stack of four detection layers was used for model validation. Each layer of the prototype contains a copper buildup plate, a phosphor screen and photodiode array. The model was validated against measured data of Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), Noise-Power Spectrum (NPS), and Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE). MTF was computed using a slanted slit with 2.3° angle and 0.1mm width. NPS was obtained using the autocorrelation function technique. DQE was calculated from MTF and NPS data. The comparison metrics between simulated and measured data were the Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) and the normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE). Good agreement between measured and simulated MTF and NPS values was observed. Pearson's correlation coefficient for the combined signal from all layers of the MLI was equal to 0.9991 for MTF and 0.9992 for NPS; NRMSE was 0.0121 for MTF and 0.0194 for NPS. Similarly, the DQE correlation coefficient for the combined signal was 0.9888 and the NRMSE was 0.0686. A comprehensive model of the novel MLI design was developed using the GATE toolkit and validated against measured MTF, NPS, and DQE data acquired with a prototype device featuring four layers. This model will be used for further optimization of the imager components and configuration for clinical radiotherapy applications.

NPWE model observer as a validated alternative for contrast detail analysis of digital detectors in general radiography

To propose and validate a non-prewhitening with eye filter (NPWE) model observer as an alternative means of quantifying and specifying imaging performance for general radiography detectors, in a comparative study with contrast detail analysis and detective quantum efficiency (DQE).Five different x-ray detectors were assessed, covering a range of detector technologies including powder computed radiography (CR), needle CR, and three indirect conversion flat panel digital radiography detectors (DR). For each detector, threshold contrast detail (c–d) detectability was measured using the Leeds TO20 test object. A tube voltage of 70 kV and 1 mm Cu added filtration was used and five target detector air kerma (DAK) levels were set, ranging from 0.625 µGy to 10 µGy. Three c–d images were acquired at the same DAK levels and these were scored by two observers. Presampling modulation transfer function (MTF) was measured using an edge method while contrast was measured with a 2 mm Al square of dimension 10 × 10 mm. The normalized noise power spectrum (NNPS) was calculated at the target DAK values of the c–d images. The MTF, NNPS and contrast data were then used to calculate a detectability index (d′) with the NPWE model and compared to the human observer c–d results. The standard quantitative means of evaluating detector performance i.e. DQE, was then calculated for each detector.A linear correlation was found between the logarithm of threshold contrast and the logarithm of d’ for all detectors, as DAK was increased. Furthermore, the absolute value of d′ tracked threshold contrast between the five detectors, enabling the use of detectability to quantify image quality rather than the intrinsically subjective threshold contrast scored by human observers from c–d test object images. At 2.5 µGy target DAK, d’ followed the differences in DQE between the five detectors.The NPWE detectability index can be used an alternative parameter for the quantification and specification of the image quality of general radiography x-ray detectors.

The influence of focal spot blooming on high-contrast spatial resolution in CT imaging.

The objective of this work was to investigate focal spot blooming effects on the spatial resolution of CT images and to evaluate an x-ray tube that uses dynamic focal spot control for minimizing focal spot blooming. The influence of increasing tube current at a fixed tube potential of 80 kV on high-contrast spatial resolution of seven different CT scanner models (scanners A-G), including one scanner that uses dynamic focal spot control to reduce focal spot blooming (scanner A), was evaluated. Spatial resolution was assessed using a wire phantom for the modulation transfer function (MTF) calculation and a copper disc phantom for measuring the slice sensitivity profile (SSP). The impact of varying the tube potential was investigated on two scanner models (scanners A and B) by measuring the MTF and SSP and also by using the resolution bar pattern module of the ACR CT phantom. The phantoms were scanned at 70-150 kV on scanner A and 80-140 kV on scanner B, with tube currents from 100 mA up to the maximum tube current available on each scanner. The images were reconstructed using a slice thickness of 0.6 mm with both smooth and sharp kernels. Additionally, focal spot size at varying tube potentials and currents was directly measured using pinhole and slit camera techniques. Evaluation of the MTF and SSP data from the 7 CT scanner models evaluated demonstrated decreased focal spot blooming for newer scanners, as evidenced by decreasing deviations in MTF and SSP as tube current varied. For scanners A and B, where focal spot blooming effects as a function of tube potential were assessed, the spatial resolution variation in the axial plane was much smaller on scanner A compared to scanner B as tube potential and current changed. On scanner A, the 50% MTF never decreased by more than 2% from the 50% MTF measured at 100 mA. On scanner B, the 50% MTF decreased by as much as 19% from the 50% MTF measured at 100 mA. Assessments of the SSP, the bar patterns in the ACR phantom and the pinhole and slit camera measurements were consistent with the MTF calculations. Focal spot blooming has a noticeable effect on spatial resolution in CT imaging. The focal spot shaping technology of scanner A greatly reduced blooming effects.

Wavefront Aberration Detection: A New Perspective

A variety of specialized wavefront detection technologies have been widely used, generally need specialized sensor or device. In this contribution, we proposed an algorithm to calculate the wavefront aberration with two-dimensional modulation transfer function data. The relationship between the wavefront aberration and the modulation transfer function is built based on the optical transfer function and simplified by applying the Newton-cotes quadrature. Thus the wavefront aberration can be numerically calculated by use of the results of the system performance in frequency domain. Numerical calculation result is provided for validating the proposed algorithm.

TU-A-218-01: Estimation of the 2-D Presampled MTF of a Digital Flat Panel Detector Using an Edge Test Device

Purpose: In this work, we report on the novel application of an opaque edge test device for practical estimation of the 2-D modulation transfer function (MTF) of a digital flat panel (DFP) detector. Methods: We estimated the 2- D MTF of a prototype GE Revolution XQ/i DFP detector (GE Healthcare, Waukesha, WI) using an opaque edge test device. The original work by Samei et al. [Med. Phys. 25, 102–113 (1998)] served as the basis of our methodology to which we also contributed further theoretical analysis regarding sub-pixel precision of 1 -D MTF measurements at arbitrary angle. The edge was imaged five times at each of ten angles relative to the sampling lattice: 1.33, 7.59, 20.22, 30.29, 37.90, 48.07, 58.85, 69.78, 78.13, and 88.02 degrees. The 1-D MTF was computed from edge data at each angle using Fourier analysis. The 2-D MTF was estimated through a simple surface fit and linear interpolation scheme based on Delaunay triangulation of the collection of 1-D MTF data. Results: All angles yielded nearly identical 1-D MTFs with relative standard deviations of 0.39%, 1.3%, 4.2%, and 5.6% at 1, 2, 3, and 4 cycles/mm, respectively. These measurements exhibited no discernible patterns with respect to acquisition angle indicating that the 2-D MTF has approximate circular symmetry at frequencies below 4 cycles/mm. Although this assertion agrees with the conclusions of other authors, blur due to the finite rectangular pixel aperture may merit further investigation at the highest spatial frequencies where the MTF may not behave in a circularly symmetric manner. Conclusions: We present for the first time the practical estimation of the 2-D MTF of a DFP detector using an edge test device. The general availability, acceptance, and ease of implementation of edge-based MTF assessments make this a valuable technique for 2-D MTF measurement in academic, industrial, and clinical settings.

Evaluation of the Red Emitting ${\rm Gd}_{2}{\rm O}_{2}{\rm S}\!\!:\!\!{\rm Eu}$ Powder Scintillator for Use in Indirect X-Ray Digital Mammography Detectors

The aim of the present study was to investigate the imaging transfer characteristics and the luminescence efficiency (XLE) of Gd2O2S:Eu powder scintillator for use in X-ray mammography detectors. Gd2O2S:Eu emits in the red part of the visible spectrum, having very good spectral compatibility with optical sensors employed in digital imaging systems. Three Gd2O2S:Eu powder scintillating screens, with coating thicknesses 33.1, 46.4 and 63.1 mg/cm2 , were prepared in our laboratory. The imaging performance of these screens was assessed by experimental determination of the modulation transfer function (MTF), the noise transfer function (NTF) and the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) as well as a single index image quality parameter such as the information capacity (IC). A theoretical model, describing radiation and light transfer, was used to fit experimental MTF data. This has allowed the estimation of optical attenuation coefficients of the scintillator. In addition, a previously validated Monte Carlo code, based on the X-ray attenuation properties and on the Mie light scattering theory, was used to estimate the X-ray detection efficiency, the Swank factor and the zero frequency DQE of the Gd2O2S:Eu scintillator. Results showed that Gd2O2S:Eu exhibits high MTF and DQE values, which are comparable to those of a commercially employed Gd2O2S:Tb screen. In addition Gd2O2S:Eu shows high compatibility (effective gain) to CCDs and to recently introduced CMOS based detectors. Considering our image quality parameters and luminescence efficiency results, this material can potentially be considered for use in digital X-ray mammography detectors.

Modelling the imaging performance and low contrast detectability in digital mammography

A digital x-ray mammography is a modern method for the early detection of breast cancer. The quality of a mammography image depends on various factors, the detector structure and performance being of primary importance. The aim of this work was to develop an analytical model simulating the imaging performance of a new commercially available digital mammography detector. This was achieved within the framework of the linear cascaded systems (LCS) theory. System analysis has allowed the estimation of important image quality metrics such as the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF), the Noise Power Spectrum (NPS) and the Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE). The detector was an indirect detection system consisting of a large area, 100μm thick, CsI:TI scintillator coupled to an active matrix array of amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) photodiodes combined with thin film transistors (TFT). Pixel size was 100μm, while the active pixel dimension was 70μm. MTF and DQE data were calculated for air kerma conditions of 25, 53, 67 μGy using a 28 kVp Mo-Mo x-ray spectrum. The theoretical results were compared with published experimental data. The deviation between the theoretical and experimental MTF curves was less than 4%, while the DQE differences were found at an acceptable level. The model was also used to estimate system's capability to detect low contrast objects in the breast. It was estimated that, in the breast gland, low contrast structures larger than 1.4mm can be adequately identified by the above system.

Performance evaluation for pinhole collimators of small gamma camera by MTF and NNPS analysis: Monte Carlo simulation study

Presently, the gamma camera system is widely used in various medical diagnostic, industrial and environmental fields. Hence, the quantitative and effective evaluation of its imaging performance is essential for design and quality assurance. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards for gamma camera evaluation are insufficient to perform sensitive evaluation. In this study, modulation transfer function (MTF) and normalized noise power spectrum (NNPS) will be suggested to evaluate the performance of small gamma camera with changeable pinhole collimators using Monte Carlo simulation. We simulated the system with a cylinder and a disk source, and seven different pinhole collimators from 1- to 4-mm-diameter pinhole with lead. The MTF and NNPS data were obtained from output images and were compared with full-width at half-maximum (FWHM), sensitivity and differential uniformity. In the result, we found that MTF and NNPS are effective and novel standards to evaluate imaging performance of gamma cameras instead of conventional NEMA standards.

Modulation Transfer Function Measurement for Ink Jet Printed Silk Fabrics

The modulation transfer function (MTF) is a standard method used for estimating the image quality of a component for detail recording in an image forming system and for printing quality of the final products. This study focused on the measurement of MTF of nonprinted and printed silk fabrics and a correlation of the MTF data to sharpness of the printed silk fabric using the in-house formulated ink jet ink. The MTF of the surface was measured using the sinusoidal test pattern in contact with the fabric using spatial frequencies from 0.375 to 3.0 cycles/mm. The sinusoidal test target scanned by a microdensitometer in the reflection density mode. These data comprise two frequencies; the high frequency is the characteristic of the fabric while the low frequency is the light scattering of the yarns in contact with the sinusoidal target. The sinusoidal curves at the low frequency were used for further calculation of the MTF values. The result indicated that the measurement of MTF of silk fabric using the contact sinusoidal method can find the point spread function of silk fabrics. This research investigated the relationships of weave style and direction, wicking properties, and the MTF of four different silk fabrics with plain weave (silk A, C, and D) or twill weave (silk B). Dot gain by -the Yule-Nielsen model was investigated. The coefficient d calculated by the MTF empirical model was 0.0604 and the coefficient n by the Yule-Nielsen model was 1.636 for silk D which had the lowest d and n coefficients compared with other silk fabrics, indicating good quality in terms of image sharpness.

Comparison of Mercuric Iodide and Lead Iodide X-Ray Detectors for X-Ray Imaging Applications

Mercuric iodide (HgI2) and lead iodide (PbI2) materials have been investigated for several years as direct converter layers for digital x-ray imaging applications. A difficult challenge of both lead iodide and mercuric iodide is the higher than desired leakage currents. These currents are influenced by different factors such as applied electrical field, layer thickness, layer density, electrode structure, material purity and by the deposition parameters. Minimizing the leakage current must also be achieved without adversely affecting charge transport, which plays a large role in gain and is influenced by these parameters. Other challenges relate to increasing film thickness without degrading electrical properties. This paper compares some imagers as the result of optimization process. We deposited the above materials on flat panel thin film transistor (TFT) arrays with 127 um pixel pitch. The imagers were evaluated for both radiographic and fluoroscopic imaging. Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) was measured as a function of the spatial frequency. The MTF data were compared to values published in the literature for indirect detector (CsI). Image lag characteristics of mercuric iodide appear adequate for fluoroscopic rates. The structure and x-ray diffraction data of the two materials were compared to explain the difference in image lag between them

A comparison between objective and subjective image quality measurements for a full field digital mammography system

This paper presents pre-sampling modulation transfer function (MTF), normalized noise power spectrum (NNPS) and detective quantum efficiency (DQE) results for an amorphous selenium (a-Se) full field digital mammography system. MTF was calculated from the image of an angled 0.5 mm thick Cu edge, acquired without additional beam filtration. NNPS data were acquired at detector air-kerma levels ranging from 9.1 µGy to 331 µGy, using a standard mammography x-ray spectrum of 28 kV, Mo/Mo target/filter combination and 4 cm of PMMA additional filtration. Prior to NNPS estimation, the image statistics were assessed using a variance image. This method was able to easily identify a detector artefact and should prove useful in routine quality assurance (QA) measurements. Detector DQE, calculated from the NNPS and MTF data, dropped to 0.3 for low detector air-kerma settings but reached an approximately constant value of 0.6 above 50 µGy at the detector. Subjective image quality data were also obtained at these detector air-kerma settings using the CDMAM contrast-detail (c-d) test object. The c-d data reflected the trend seen in DQE, with threshold contrast increasing at low detector air-kerma values. The c-d data were then compared against predictions made using two established models, the Rose model and a standard signal detection theory model. Using DQE(0), the Rose model gave results within approximately 15% on average for all the detector air-kerma values studied and for detail diameters down to 0.2 mm. Similar agreement was also found between the measured c-d data and the signal detection theory results, which were calculated using an ideal human visual response function and a system magnification of unity. The use of full spatial frequency DQE improved the agreement between the calculated and observer results for detail sizes below 0.13 mm.

Optimization of the matrix inversion tomosynthesis (MITS) impulse response and modulation transfer function characteristics for chest imaging

Matrix inversion tomosynthesis (MITS) uses linear systems theory, along with a priori knowledge of the imaging geometry, to deterministically distinguish between true structure and overlying tomographic blur in a set of conventional tomosynthesis planes. In this paper we examine the effect of total scan angle (ANG), number of input projections (N), and plane separation/number of reconstructed planes (NP) on the MITS impulse response (IR) and modulation transfer function (MTF), with the purpose of optimizing MITS imaging of the chest. MITS IR and MTF data were generated by simulating the imaging of a very thin wire, using various combinations of ANG, N, and NP. Actual tomosynthesis data of an anthropomorphic chest phantom were acquired with a prototype experimental system, using the same imaging parameter combinations as those in the simulations. Thoracic projection data from two human subjects were collected for corroboration of the system response analysis in vivo. Results suggest that ANG=20 degrees, N=71, NP=69 is the optimal combination for MITS chest imaging given the inherent constraints of our prototype system. MITS chest data from human subjects demonstrates that the selected imaging strategy can effectively produce high-quality MITS thoracic images in vivo.

Assessment of radiographic screen-film systems: a comparison between the use of a microdensitometer and a drum film digitiser

A high-end drum film digitiser (Tango, Germany) and a calibrated linear microdensitometer developed by PTB were used to assess the modulation transfer function (MTF) and the noise power spectra (NPS) of 3 mammographic screen film systems at optical density levels of 0.8, 1.5 and 2.5. The use of a drum scanner to assess MTF and NPS data appears to be adequate but requires an appropriate characterisation of the scanner to verify its internal noise level and its MTF. It is further necessary to calibrate the scanner output in terms of visual diffuse optical densities. Processing of two-dimensional digital data of grating images need to be more strictly defined for accurate MTF measurements of screen-film systems. Nevertheless, even now it seems to be feasible to use commercially available high-end and well calibrated scanners to assess screen film systems. This is especially important for quality assurance purposes because important parameters of screen film systems such like MTF and NPS can now be determined without using sophisticated microdensitometers which are not commercially available.

Imaging quality assessment of multi-modal miniature microscope

We are developing a multi-modal miniature microscope (4M device) to image morphology and cytochemistry in vivo and provide better delineation of tumors. The 4M device is designed to be a complete microscope on a chip, including optical, micro-mechanical, and electronic components. It has advantages such as compact size and capability for microscopic-scale imaging. This paper presents an optics-only prototype 4M device, the very first imaging system made of sol-gel material. The microoptics used in the 4M device has a diameter of 1.3 mm. Metrology of the imaging quality assessment of the prototype device is presented. We describe causes of imaging performance degradation in order to improve the fabrication process. We built a multi-modal imaging test-bed to measure first-order properties and to assess the imaging quality of the 4M device. The 4M prototype has a field of view of 290 microm in diameter, a magnification of -3.9, a working distance of 250 microm and a depth of field of 29.6+/-6 microm. We report the modulation transfer function (MTF) of the 4M device as a quantitative metric of imaging quality. Based on the MTF data, we calculated a Strehl ratio of 0.59. In order to investigate the cause of imaging quality degradation, the surface characterization of lenses in 4M devices is measured and reported. We also imaged both polystyrene microspheres similar in size to epithelial cell nuclei and cervical cancer cells. Imaging results indicate that the 4M prototype can resolve cellular detail necessary for detection of precancer.

Estimating the Size and Profile of Diffuse Dye Clouds in Colour Negative Film

Using a simple analysis technique applied to photomicrographic data, the size and profile of highly diffuse dye cloud structures in a colour negative photographic material have been determined. The size and profile of individual clouds were also calculated from modulation transfer function (MTF) and noise power spectrum (NPS) measurements. In the case of NPS, modifications to an existing theory had to be made in order to allow for the kinds of cloud structure encountered with extreme levels of dye diffusion. The results obtained from MTF, NPS and photomicrographic data were found to correlate reasonably well.

Absolute measures of image quality for the Sens-A-Ray direct digital intraoral radiography system

To study the noise characteristics of the Sens-A-Ray (Regam Medical Systems AB, Sundsvall, Sweden) system, 20 radiographs were obtained at each of three different exposure levels at 70 and 90 kVp with a homogeneous x-ray field. Exposures were measured with an ionization chamber. Noise power spectra were calculated over three areas within each radiograph, and ensemble averages were subsequently found from 60 data files at each exposure level. Noise equivalent quanta were calculated with the noise power spectra and modulation transfer function data from previous studies. Finally, the detective quantum efficiency was calculated by dividing the noise equivalent quanta by the estimated incident photon fluence at the different exposures. The system has a maximum detective quantum efficiency of approximately 0.030 at 70 kVp and 0.025 at 90 kVp. A broad maximum exists at approximately 2 cycles/mm, indicating that the signal-to-noise ratio is most favorable at this spatial frequency.

Estimation of the real aperture radar modulation transfer function directly from synthetic aperture radar ocean wave image spectra without a priori knowledge of the ocean wave height spectrum

The phase and amplitude of the real aperture radar (RAR) modulation transfer function (MTF) are, applying both simulated and real synthetic aperture radar (SAR) image spectra, shown to strongly influence the SAR ocean wave imaging of range‐ (or near‐range) traveling wave systems. Conventionally, in situ measurement of the sea state has been used in connection with SAR estimation of the RAR MTF. In most cases, the SAR imaging has been simulated by varying the phase and amplitude of the transfer function until some criterium for best fit between the measured and simulated spectra is met. The main problem with this method is the need for in situ buoy measurements of the underlying ocean wave height spectrum. This paper proposes a new method for estimating the RAR MTF directly from the SAR ocean wave image spectrum. Hence the method differs from previously used methods in that it is independent of in situ measurements of the sea state. The only (weak) restriction is that the observed wave system is range‐ or near‐range traveling. On the basis of three range‐going profiles the RAR MTF phase and amplitude are estimated. Investigations using synthetic data reveal that the SAR image spectrum for realistic sea states is colored by the unknown transfer function to such an extent that the underlying wave spectral form is not critical. Experimentally, the phase and amplitude of the RAR modulation are computed using the Norwegian Continental Shelf Experiment 1988 data. It is shown that the phase is most important for the SAR spectral distribution. Typically, the phase is observed to be in the interval from 60° to 110° and the amplitude to be of the order of 10–18. Furthermore, it is shown from simulation studies that marked changes in real SAR image spectra crossing an atmospheric front are recreated when the measured MTF phase and amplitude are used. Eventually, the hydrodynamic modulation is also extracted from the RAR MTF data. Variations of the hydrodynamic MTF phase across the abovementioned front are focused on. The estimates confirm a consistent wind direction induced modulation on each side of the front. No marked trends are observed for the amplitude. The overall conclusion of the study is that the conformity between simulated and measured spectra is improved when measured RAR MTFs are incorporated in SAR imaging simulation procedures.