Modulation Of Galactic Cosmic Rays Research Articles

Modulation of galactic cosmic rays during the unusual solar minimum between cycles 23 and 24

During the recent solar minimum between cycles 23 and 24 (solar minimum P23/24), the intensity of galactic cosmic rays (GCR) measured at the Earth was the highest ever recorded since space age. It is the purpose of this paper to resolve the most plausible mechanism for this unusually high intensity. A GCR transport model in three‐dimensional heliosphere based on a simulation of Markov stochastic process is used to find the relation of cosmic ray modulation to various transport parameters, including solar wind (SW) speed, distance of heliospheric boundary, magnitude of interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) at the Earth, tilt angle of heliospheric current sheet, and values of parallel and perpendicular diffusion coefficients. We calculate GCR proton energy spectra at the Earth for the last three solar minima P21/22, P22/23, and P23/24, with the transport parameters obtained from observations. Besides weak IMF magnitude and slow SW speed, we find that a possible low magnetic turbulence, which increases the parallel diffusion and reduces the perpendicular diffusion in the polar direction, might be an additional possible mechanism for the high GCR intensity in the solar minimum P23/24.

Galactic Cosmic Ray Modulation near the Heliospheric Current Sheet

Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) are modulated by the heliospheric magnetic field (HMF) both over decadal time scales (due to long-term, global HMF variations), and over time scales of a few hours (associated with solar wind structures such as coronal mass ejections or the heliospheric current sheet, HCS). Due to the close association between the HCS, the streamer belt, and the band of slow solar wind, HCS crossings are often associated with corotating interaction regions where fast solar wind catches up and compresses slow solar wind ahead of it. However, not all HCS crossings are associated with strong compressions. In this study we categorize HCS crossings in two ways: Firstly, using the change in magnetic polarity, as either away-to-toward (AT) or toward-to-away (TA) magnetic field directions relative to the Sun and, secondly, using the strength of the associated solar wind compression, determined from the observed plasma density enhancement. For each category, we use superposed epoch analyses to show differences in both solar wind parameters and GCR flux inferred from neutron monitors. For strong-compression HCS crossings, we observe a peak in neutron counts preceding the HCS crossing, followed by a large drop after the crossing, attributable to the so-called ‘snow-plough’ effect. For weak-compression HCS crossings, where magnetic field polarity effects are more readily observable, we instead observe that the neutron counts have a tendency to peak in the away magnetic field sector. By splitting the data by the dominant polarity at each solar polar region, we find that the increase in GCR flux prior to the HCS crossing is primarily from strong compressions in cycles with negative north polar fields due to GCR drift effects. Finally, we report on unexpected differences in GCR behavior between TA weak compressions during opposing polarity cycles.

Interplanetary Coronal Mass Ejections, Associated Features, and Transient Modulation of Galactic Cosmic Rays

Interplanetary structures such as shocks, sheaths, interplanetary counterparts of coronal mass ejections (ICMEs), magnetic clouds, and corotating interaction regions (CIRs) are of special interest for the study of the transient modulation of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs). These structures modulate the GCR intensity with varying amplitudes and recovery-time profiles. It is known that ICMEs are mainly responsible for Forbush decreases in the GCR intensity. However, not all of the ICMEs produce such decreases in GCR intensity. We utilize GCR intensity data recorded by neutron monitors and solar-wind plasma/field data during the passage of ICMEs with different features and structures, and we perform a superposed-epoch analysis of the data. We also adopt the best-fit approach with suitable functions to interpret the observed similarities and differences in various parameters. Using the GCR-effectiveness as a measure of the cosmic-ray response to the passage of ICMEs, about half of the ICMEs identified during 1996 – 2009 are found to produce moderate to very large intensity depressions in GCR intensity. The ICMEs associated with halo CMEs, magnetic-cloud (MC) structures, bidirectional superthermal electron (BDE) signatures, and those driving shocks are 1.5 to 4 times more GCR effective than the ICMEs not associated with these structures/features. Further, the characteristic recovery time of GCR intensity due to shock/BDE/MC/halo-CME-associated ICMEs is larger than those due to ICMEs not associated with these structures/features.

Where does the heliospheric modulation of galactic cosmic rays start?

The long outstanding question of where the heliospheric (solar) modulation of galactic cosmic rays actually begins, in terms of spatial position, as well as at what high kinetic energy, can now be answered. Both answers are possible by using the results of an advanced numerical model, together with appropriate observations. Voyager 1 has been exploring the outskirts of the heliosphere and is presently entering what can be called the very local interstellar medium. It has been generally expected, and accepted, that once the heliopause is crossed, the local interstellar spectrum (LIS) should be measured in situ by the Voyager spacecraft. However, we show that this may not be the case and that modulation effects on galactic cosmic rays can persist well beyond the heliopause. For example, proton observations at 100MeV close to the heliopause can be lower by ∼25% to 40% than the LIS, depending on solar modulation conditions. It is also illustrated quantitatively that significant solar modulation diminishes above ∼50GeV at Earth. It is found that cosmic ray observations above this energy contain less that 5% solar modulation effects and should therefore reflect the LIS for galactic cosmic rays. Input spectra, in other words the very LIS, for solar modulation models are now constrained by in situ observations and can therefore not any longer be treated arbitrarily. It is also possible for the first time to determine the lower limit of the very LIS from a few MeV/nuc to very high energies.

Time-Dependent Modulation of Cosmic Rays in the Heliosphere

The time-dependent modulation of galactic cosmic rays in the heliosphere is studied by computing intensities using a time-dependent modulation model. By introducing recent theoretical advances in the transport coefficients in the model, computed intensities are compared with Voyager 1, International Monitoring Platform (IMP) 8, and Ulysses proton observations in search of compatibility. The effect of different modulation parameters on computed intensities is also illustrated. It is shown that this approach produces, on a global scale, realistic cosmic-ray proton intensities along the Voyager 1 spacecraft trajectory and at Earth up to ≈ 2004, whereafter the computed intensities recover much more slowly towards solar minimum than observed in the inner heliosphere. A modified time dependence in the diffusion coefficients is proposed to improve compatibility with the observations at Earth after ≈ 2004. This modified time dependence led to an improved compatibility between computed intensities and the observations along the Voyager 1 trajectory and at Earth even after ≈ 2004. An interesting result is that the cosmic-ray modulation during the current polarity cycle is not determined only by changes in the drift coefficient and tilt angle of the wavy current sheet, but is also largely dependent on changes in the diffusion coefficients.

Solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays with the ARINA and PAMELA spectrometers

Solar modulation of the proton flux in Galactic space radiation during the period from the end of the 23rd to the beginning of 24th cycle of solar activity is investigated using data from the PAMELA magnetic spectrometer and ARINA scintillation spectrometer. The time dependence of proton intensity is plotted, and shows typical features in a form of rises and falls against a main trend. In order to explain these, the correlation between variations in the Galactic proton flux and solar/interplanetary parameters is investigated.

On the structure of galactic cosmic ray intensity during its long-term variations

The structure of GCR intensity and its changes during the solar magnetic cycle are analyzed by numerically solving its transport equation. We propose a research method that allows us to use the intermediate results from numerical calculations, to resolve the intensity of galactic cosmic rays into components caused by sunspot and magnetic solar cycles, and to monitor the changes in energy in different parts of the heliosphere and different phases of the cycle. A method for dividing intensity into its components associated with the main physical processes determining the modulation of galactic cosmic rays is also proposed.

Monitoring temporal and spatial variations in galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) in the inner heliosphere from data on cosmogenic radionuclides in freshly-fallen meteorites

Meteorite data on monitoring the variations in GCR gradients at 2–4 AU from the Sun over the period 1957–2010 demonstrate the effect of the inversion of solar magnetic fields (SMFs) during the solar maximum periods of 11-year solar cycles on the depth of GCR modulation in the heliosphere.

Heliospheric Modulation of Galactic Cosmic Rays During Solar Cycle 23

Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) encounter an outward-moving solar wind with cyclic magnetic-field fluctuation and turbulence. This causes convection and diffusion in the heliosphere. The GCR counts from the ground-based neutron monitor stations show intensity changes that are anti-correlated with the sunspot numbers with a lag of a few months. GCRs experience various types of modulation from different solar activity features and influence space weather and the terrestrial climate. In this work, we investigate certain aspects of the GCR modulation at low cut-off rigidity (R c≈1 GV) in relation to some solar and geomagnetic indices for the entire solar cycle 23 (1996 – 2008). We separately study the GCR modulation during the ascending phase of cycle 23 including its maximum (1996 – 2002) and the descending phase including its minimum (2003 – 2008). We find that during the descending phase, the GCR recoveries are much faster than those of the solar parameters with negative time-lag. The results are discussed in light of modulation models, including drift effects and previous results.

Study of solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays with the PAMELA and ARINA spectrometers in 2006-2012

Spectrometers PAMELA and ARINA, mounted on the spacecraft Resurs-DK1, carried out precision measurements of galactic cosmic ray (GCR) flux near the Earth from 2006 to present. Combining these instruments gives the possibility to study the effect of solar modulation in the energy range from 30 MeV to dozens of GeV. This report presents experimental results concerning the time interval from the end of the 23rd solar cycle (noted by an prolonged minimum) to the beginning of the 24th cycle. The cosmic ray flux raised up to the end of 2009, then it began to decline, which is in coincidence with the sunspot number and evidence of the solar activity increasing. Some additional features were noted in the time profile of galactic cosmic ray flux, which, as shown by analysis of the correlation, correspond to a change of such heliospheric parameters as the tilt angle of the heliospheric current sheet (HCS), the solar wind velocity and the intensity of interplanetary magnetic field (IMF).

THE LOCAL INTERSTELLAR SPECTRUM BEYOND THE HELIOPAUSE: WHAT CAN BE LEARNED FROMVOYAGERIN THE INNER HELIOSHEATH?

The local interstellar spectrum (LIS) is one of the most important but unknown parameters used in all modeling efforts to describe the modulation of Galactic cosmic rays on their way from the galaxy through a possible bow shock, heliosheath, and heliosphere toward the Earth. Because it has not been measured thus far, several LIS models derived from numerical simulations or data on Earth were developed. A new method to determine the LIS was introduced when the Voyager spacecraft crossed the termination shock and entered the heliosheath. Webber & Higbie derived a new LIS, which is lower than all previous LIS models over the entire energy range, on the basis of these measurements. Numerical simulations by Scherer et al. showed that particles already in the outer heliosheath (OHS) are modulated, suggesting that the LIS by Webber & Higbie is a heliopause spectrum (HPS) rather than the true LIS. By using the same simplified simulation model, we estimate the diffusion coefficient in the OHS to be consistent with several 1026 to 1027 cm2 s–1 for all LIS models under consideration by mapping them to this HPS and conclude that the Voyager measurements will not be able to determine the LIS in the near future. We then discuss the circumstances under which the terrestrial archive can be used to at least exclude LIS models, unless one awaits a dedicated mission like e.g., the Interstellar Probe.

Heliospheric modulation of galactic cosmic rays during grand solar minima: Past and future variations

Galactic cosmic ray flux at Earth is modulated by the heliospheric magnetic field. Heliospheric modulation potential, Φ, during grand solar minima is investigated using an open solar flux (OSF) model with OSF source based on sunspot number, R, and OSF loss on heliospheric current sheet inclination. Changing dominance between source and loss means Φ varies in‐ (anti‐) phase with R during strong (weak) cycles, in agreement with Φ estimates from ice core records of10Be concentration, which are in‐phase during most of the last 300 years, but anti‐phase during the Maunder Minimum. Model results suggest “flat” OSF cycles, such as solar cycle 20 result from OSF source and loss terms temporarily balancing throughout the cycle. Thus even if solar activity continues to decline steadily, the long‐term drop in OSF through SC21 to SC23 may plateau during SC24, though reemerge in SC25 with the inverted phase relation.

Galactic Cosmic Ray Modulation and the Last Solar Minimum

In this work the galactic cosmic ray modulation in relation to solar activity indices and heliospheric parameters during the years 1996 – 2010 covering solar cycle 23 and the solar minimum between cycles 23 and 24 is studied. A new perspective of this contribution is that cosmic ray data with a rigidity of 10 GV at the top of the atmosphere obtained from many ground-based neutron monitors were used. The proposed empirical relation gave much better results than those in previous works concerning the hysteresis effect. The proposed models obtained from a combination of solar activity indices and heliospheric parameters give a standard deviation < 10 % for all the cases. The correlation coefficient between the cosmic ray variations of 10 GV and the sunspot number reached a value of r=−0.89 with a time lag of 13.6±0.4 months. The best reproduction of the cosmic ray intensity is obtained by taking into account solar and interplanetary indices such as sunspot number, interplanetary magnetic field, CME index, and heliospheric current sheet tilt. The standard deviation between the observed and calculated values is about 7.15 % for all of solar cycle 23; it also works very well during the different phases of the cycle. Moreover, the use of the cosmic ray intensity of 10 GV during the long minimum period between cycles 23 and 24 is of special interest and is discussed in terms of cosmic ray intensity modulation.

Extrema of long-term modulation of the cosmic ray intensity in the last five solar cycles

Modulation of galactic cosmic rays in cycles 19–23 of solar activity has been determined based on observations of their long-term variations on the ground and in the near-Earth space. The extreme values of long-term variations in cosmic rays, obtained from the data of continuous cosmic radiation monitoring on the ground and in the near-Earth space in the last five solar cycles, have been analyzed. The results are compared with the extrema in the characteristics of solar magnetic fields and the sunspot numbers in these cycles. The similarities and differences in cosmic ray modulation between different cycles are discussed.

The first cosmic ray albedo proton map of the Moon

Neutrons emitted from the Moon are produced by the impact of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) within the regolith. GCRs are high‐energy particles capable of smashing atomic nuclei in the lunar regolith and producing a shower of energetic protons, neutrons and other subatomic particles. Secondary particles that are ejected out of the regolith become “albedo” particles. The neutron albedo has been used to study the hydrogen content of the lunar regolith, which motivates our study of albedo protons. In principle, the albedo protons should vary as a function of the input GCR source and possibly as a result of surface composition and properties. During the LRO mission, the total detection rate of albedo protons between 60 MeV and 150 MeV has been declining since 2009 in parallel with the decline in the galactic cosmic ray flux, which validates the concept of an albedo proton source. On the other hand, the average yield of albedo protons has been increasing as the galactic cosmic ray spectrum has been hardening, consistent with a disproportionately stronger modulation of lower energy GCRs as solar activity increases. We construct the first map of the normalized albedo proton emission rate from the lunar surface to look for any albedo variation that correlates with surface features. The map is consistent with a spatially uniform albedo proton yield to within statistical uncertainties.

Streamline generation code for particle dynamics description in numerical models of turbulence

Streamline Version 4 is a versatile Fortran 77 & C++ program for calculating charged test particle trajectories or field-lines for user-specified fields using the test-particle method. The user has the freedom to specify any type of field (analytical, tabulated in files, time dependent, etc.) and maintains complete control over initial conditions of trajectories/field-lines and boundary conditions of specified fields. The structure of Streamline was redesigned from previous versions in order to know not only particle or field-lines positions and velocities at each step of the simulations, but also the instantaneous field values as seen by particles. This was made to compute the instantaneous value of the particle’s magnetic moment, but other applications are possible too. Accuracy tests of the code are shown for different cases, i.e., particles moving in constant magnetic field, magnetic plus constant electric field and wave field. In addition in the last part of the paper we concentrate our discussion on the study of velocity space diffusion of charged particles in turbulent slab fields, paying attention to the discretization of the fields and the temporal discretization of the dynamical equations. The diffusion of charged particles is a very common topic in plasma physics and astrophysics since it plays an important role in many different phenomena such as stochastic particle acceleration, diffusive shock acceleration, solar energetic particle propagation, and the scattering required for the solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays.

Solar Modulation of Cosmic Rays during the Declining and Minimum Phases of Solar Cycle 23: Comparison with Past Three Solar Cycles

We study solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) during the deep solar minimum, including the declining phase, of solar cycle 23 and compare the results of this unusual period with the results obtained during similar phases of the previous solar cycles 20, 21, and 22. These periods consist of two epochs each of negative and positive polarities of the heliospheric magnetic field from the north polar region of the Sun. In addition to cosmic ray data, we utilize simultaneous solar and interplanetary plasma/field data including the tilt angle of the heliospheric current sheet. We study the relation between simultaneous variations in cosmic ray intensity and solar/interplanetary parameters during the declining and the minimum phases of cycle 23. We compare these relations with those obtained for the same phases in the three previous solar cycles. We observe certain peculiar features in cosmic ray modulation during the minimum of solar cycle 23 including the record high GCR intensity. We find, during this unusual minimum, that the correlation of GCR intensity is poor with sunspot number (R = -0.41), better with interplanetary magnetic field (R = -0.66), still better with solar wind velocity (R = -0.80) and much better with the tilt angle of the heliospheric current sheet (R = -0.92). In our view, it is not the diffusion or the drift alone, but the solar wind convection is the most likely additional effect responsible for the record high GCR intensity observed during the deep minimum of solar cycle 23.

Effects of solar modulation on the cosmic ray positron fraction

We implemented a 2D Monte Carlo model to simulate the solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays. The model is based on the Parker’s transport equation which contains diffusion, convection, particle drift and energy loss. Following the evolution in time of the solar activity, we are able to modulate a local interstellar spectrum (LIS), that we assumed isotropic beyond the termination shock, down to the Earth position inside the heliosphere. In this work we focused our attention to the cosmic ray positron fraction at energy below ∼10GeV, showing how the particle drift processes could explain different results for AMS-01 and PAMELA. We compare our modulated spectra with observations at Earth, and then make a prediction of the cosmic ray positron fraction for the AMS-02 experiment.

The scaler mode in the Pierre Auger Observatory to study heliospheric modulation of cosmic rays

The impact of the solar activity on the heliosphere has a strong influence on the modulation of the flux of low energy galactic cosmic rays arriving at Earth. Different instruments, such as neutron monitors or muon detectors, have been recording the variability of the cosmic ray flux at ground level for several decades. Although the Pierre Auger Observatory was designed to observe cosmic rays at the highest energies, it also records the count rates of low energy secondary particles (the scaler mode) for the self-calibration of its surface detector array. From observations using the scaler mode at the Pierre Auger Observatory, modulation of galactic cosmic rays due to solar transient activity has been observed (e.g., Forbush decreases). Due to the high total count rate coming from the combined area of its detectors, the Pierre Auger Observatory (its detectors have a total area greater than 16,000m2) detects a flux of secondary particles of the order of ∼108 counts per minute. Time variations of the cosmic ray flux related to the activity of the heliosphere can be determined with high accuracy. In this paper we briefly describe the scaler mode and analyze a Forbush decrease together with the interplanetary coronal mass ejection that originated it. The Auger scaler data are now publicly available.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL WAVY HELIOSPHERIC CURRENT SHEET DRIFTS

We present an analytic method to determine the directions of the three-dimensional (3D) heliospheric current sheet (HCS) drift for any tilt angle based on Parker's heliospheric magnetic field and compare it with published two-dimensional and quasi-3D methods. We also present a new approach to determine the magnitude of the 3D HCS drift numerically. Implications of these new methods for the solar modulation of Galactic cosmic rays are considered and compared with results from prior methods reported in the literature. Our results support the concept that HCS drift plays an important role in the solar modulation of cosmic rays.