Modified Ziehl-Neelsen Technique Research Articles

Performance evaluation of point-of-care test for detection of Cryptosporidium stool antigen in children and HIV infected adults.

BackgroundGastro-enteritis is associated with significant morbidity and mortality in patients with HIV/AIDS and children, and Cryptosporidium is the most important parasite implicated. To date, several commercial companies have developed simple and rapid point-of-care tests for the detection of Cryptosporidium infection; however, information is scarce regarding their diagnostic significance in Ethiopia. This study aimed at evaluating the performance of a rapid diagnostic test (RDT) for the detection of Cryptosporidium stool antigen.MethodsA hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Hawassa University Hospital, southern Ethiopia from May to November 2013. Faecal samples were collected from a total of 100 children and 250 HIV infected individuals with diarrhea or CD4 T-cell count lower than 200 cells/μl. Specimens were processed using direct, formol-ether concentration and modified Ziehl-Neelsen techniques for diagnosis of Cryptosporidium and other parasites. One hundred faecal samples (50 positives for Cryptosporidium, 35 positives for other parasites and 15 negatives for any intestinal parasites) were tested using the CoproStrip™Cryptosporidium kit (Savyon Diagnostics Ltd, Israel). Test parameters were calculated using microscopy of the modified Ziehl-Neelsen stained stool smear as reference method.ResultsThe performance of the RDT was first compared to routine microscopic analysis (examination ≤10 min). The CoproStrip™Cryptosporidium RDT correctly detected 31 of 42 positive samples and 49 of 50 negative samples (i.e., 11 false negatives and 1 false positive). Sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV and accuracy were calculated to be 74, 98, 97, 84 and 88%, respectively. Upon thorough microscopic analysis (examination >10 min), 8 more samples with very low oocyst density were found. However, these were missed by the kit and lower the sensitivity and NPV to 62 and 72%, respectively. No cross-reactivity was observed with any of the helminthic or other protozoan parasites including Isospora and Cyclospora species.ConclusionBased on the results described herein, the CoproStrip™Cryptosporidium test could be used as an alternative to conventional microscopy especially where diagnosis of Cryptosporidium is limited due to time constraints, lack of experienced microscopists or unavailability of appropriate equipment/electricity.

The threats of microbial contamination and total dissolved solids in drinking water of Riyadh's rural areas, Saudi Arabia

Background: Water is a valuable resource in Saudi Arabia. There are untreated wells scattered throughout villages that are sources of drinking water for some rural residents. Objectives: The present study was conducted to assess the quality of bottled and tap water as well as water from wells in the rural areas of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Material and Methods: Water samples (n = 300) were randomly collected from bottles, taps, and wells. Bacteriological examination of samples included total and fecal coliforms. Screening was performed using wet mounts, trichrome stain, and a modified Ziehl–Neelsen technique. Total dissolved salts (TDS) were determined using a conductivity meter. Results: There were no coliforms in samples taken from bottled water, whereas, they were detected in samples taken from tap and well water with percentages of 11%, 30% respectively (p = 0.0001). No fecal coliforms were detected in any of the bottled water samples. However, they were isolated from tap (7%) and well water samples (22%), p = 0.001. Escherichia coli content was found to have the highest percentage distribution compared with other coliforms subtypes in both tap and well water. Parasitological analysis detected only few cysts of Entameba coli in both tap (3%) and well (4%) samples while Giardia lamblia cysts (2%) were only detected in well water. There was a wide variation in concentrations of TDS in the 300 water samples. Chemical analysis of well water showed levels above the maximum limits of Saudi and international recommended standards and guidelines for salinity of drinking water. Conclusion: Water derived from wells in rural areas of Riyadh showed microbial contamination and high total dissolved solids.

Human intestinal parasites in non-biting synanthropic flies in Ogun State, Nigeria

Filth-feeding and breeding, non-biting synanthropic flies have been incriminated in the dissemination of human enteropathogens in the environment. This study determined the species of non-biting synanthropic flies associated with four filthy sites in Ilishan, Ogun State, southwest Nigeria, and assessed their potentials for mechanical transmission of human intestinal parasites. 7190 flies identified as Musca domestica (33.94%), Chrysomya megacephala (26.01%), Musca sorbens (23.23%), Lucilia cuprina (8.76%), Calliphora vicina (4.59%), Sarcophaga sp. (2.78%) and Fannia scalaris (0.70%) were examined for human intestinal parasites by the formol-ether concentration and modified Ziehl-Neelsen techniques. Eggs of the following parasites: Ascaris lumbricoides (34.08%), Trichuris trichiura (25.87%), hookworms (20.45%), Taenia sp. (2.36%), Hymenolepis nana (1.11%), Enterobius vermicularis (0.56%), Strongyloides stercoralis (larvae; 3.89%) and cysts of Entamoeba histolytica/dispar (27.26%), Entamoeba coli (22.67%), Giardia lamblia (3.34%) and Cryptosporidium sp. (1.81%) were isolated from the body surfaces and or gut contents of 75.24% of 719 pooled fly batches. The helminths A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura and the protozoans, E. histolytica/dispar and E. coli were the dominant parasites detected, both on body surfaces and in the gut contents of flies. C. megacephala was the highest carrier of parasites (diversity and number). More parasites were isolated from the gut than from body surfaces (P<0.05). Flies from soiled ground often carried more parasites than those from abattoir, garbage or open-air market. Synanthropic fly species identified in this study can be of potential epidemiological importance as mechanical transmitters of human intestinal parasites acquired naturally from filth and carried on their body surfaces and or in the gut, because of their vagility and feeding mechanisms.

Queen Elizabeth Central Hastanesine Diyare ile Başvuran Çocuklarda Cryptosporidium Parvum and Isospora Belli Enfeksiyonları Prevalansı

Purpose: Diarrhoea in children is a common problem in low resourced countries including Malawi. It is caused by many intestinal parasites including Cryptosporidium parvum and Isospora belli. Both infections are prevalent in severely immunocompromised individuals and may cause severe life-threatening diarrhoea. The main aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum and Isospora belli infections among children presenting with diarrhoea admitted to QECH - paediatrics wards and methods used for diagnosis. Some specific objectives were to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum and Isospora belli infections among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) seropositive and HIV seronegative children with diarrhoea, to evaluate diagnostic methods used at QECH to identify intestinal parasites and to determine diagnostic methods that can be recommended for implementation. Methods: Faecal samples were collected from all children presenting with diarrhoea upon admission or already hospitalised were recruited excluding all children without or with acute diarrhoea (less than three days). Four smears were prepared from each sample: 2 for Ziehl Neelsen staining and the other 2 for Auramine-phenol staining. The data was entered into Microsoft Excel and analysed using Epi-Info. Results: A total of 25 children with diarrhoea under the age of five years; 10 were human immunodeficiency virus -seropositive, 7 were HIV-seronegative and 8 of them their status was unknown. Cryptosporidium parvum was detected in 4 children (16%) at 4.5% and 36.1% confidence intervals and none had Isospora belli at 0.0% and 86.3% confidence intervals. Out of those 4 who had Cryptosporidium parvum, 3 children were HIV-seropositive and 1 child was HIV-seronegative at a frequency of 30% and 14.3% respectively. No infection was seen in children whose HIV-serostatus was unknown. Conclusion: Modified Ziehl Neelsen technique and auramine-phenol staining can be used to examine stool at QECH for C.parvum and I.belli identification. Although I.belli is prevalent in our environment, it has not yet been detected in children and or evolved as an endemic pathogen and so far remains as an opportunistic pathogen in adults only. There is need to repeat the study in rainy season and include gold standard method.

Zoonotic Cryptosporidium parvum in Romanian newborn lambs (Ovis aries)

This study was undertaken to investigate the occurrence and public health significance of Cryptosporidium species/genotypes and subtypes in a newborn lambs. A total of 175 diarrheic fecal samples from lambs (younger than 21 days) were collected in seven sheep flocks located in western Romania, and were microscopically examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts after staining with modified Ziehl–Neelsen technique. Twenty-four (13.7%) fecal samples were tested Cryptosporidium positive by microscopy and were subjected for molecular characterization. All positive samples were successfully amplified through a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene (18S). Cryptosporidium species were determined by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the secondary PCR products using the conventional SspI and VspI restriction enzymes. The identified species were: Cryptosporidium parvum (20/24), C. ubiquitum (2/24) and C. xiaoi (2/24), respectively. PCR-RFLP results for C. ubiquitum and C. xiaoi isolates were confirmed by DNA sequencing. Subsequently, subtyping of seven randomly selected C. parvum isolates, based on sequence analysis of the GP60 gene, revealed the presence of five different subtypes (IIaA17G1R1, IIaA16G1R1, IIdA20G1, IIdA24G1 and IIdA22G2R1) belonging in two zoonotic subtype families (IIa and IId). These findings may suggest the potential role of the newborn lambs as a source for human cryptosporidiosis. This is the first published report about the presence of C. ubiquitum and C. xiaoi in lambs from Romania.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp., spatial clustering and patterns of shedding in dairy calves from Córdoba, Argentina

The objectives of this study were to estimate calf and herd prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp., the herd prevalence clustering, spatial distribution according to soil type and shedding patterns in dairy calves from Cordoba, Argentina. Six hundred twenty calves younger than 7 weeks of age from 43 dairy herds were sampled. Samples were processed with the formol-ether and modified Ziehl-Neelsen techniques. Univariate analysis and Kruskall-Wallis tests were used. Factors associated were subjected to multivariate analysis with calf shedding intensity as the response variable. Clustering of herd prevalence was assessed by a scan method, and spatial analysis was applied to explore the overlapping of high prevalence herds and soil type. Overall calf prevalence for Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts and Giardia spp. cysts were 19.35% (95% CI: 16.14; 22.54) and 34.50% (95% CI: 30.69; 38.34), respectively. Calves younger than two weeks of age were almost four times more likely to be infected with Cryptosporidium, in comparison to older ones (RR: 3.78, 95% CI: 2.27; 6.26). Giardia spp. shedding showed a similar age pattern (RR: 1.33, 95% CI: 1.02; 1.75). A primary cluster of high Cryptosporidium prevalence was found, and high prevalence herds were located in areas with poor drained soil.

Cryptosporidium and other enteric parasitic infections in HIV-seropositive individuals with and without diarrhoea in Osogbo, Nigeria.

The primary objective of this cross-sectional study is to correlate the presence of Cryptosporidium and other gastrointestinal parasites with the presence of diarrhoea in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. Stool samples from 96 HIV-seropositive cases were examined for non-opportunistic parasites using the direct and formol-ether concentration methods, while the modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique was used to detect Cryptosporidium spp. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was 54.2%. Other intestinal parasites detected included Ascaris lumbricoides (9.4%), hookworm (5.2%), Entamoeba histolytica (3.1%), Strongyloides stercoralis (1%) and Taenia spp. (1%). Infection in males was more common (68.2%) than in females (55.4%) but the difference was not statistically significant. There was a significant association between Cryptosporidium infection and CD4+ count (P=0.0001), with the highest parasite prevalence (90%) observed among patients who had the lowest CD4+ count (<200 cells/mm3). Forty-five (86.5%) patients with Cryptosporidium infection presented with diarrhoea and the difference between those with and without diarrhoea was statistically significant (P=0.0001). There was a statistically significant difference (P=0.0001) among the age groups, with the 41–50 group showing the highest prevalence (84.6%) of infection. Co-infection was observed in 13.5% of the patients. As no drug is currently available for the treatment of cryptosporidiosis, emphasis should be placed on educating HIV-infected individuals about prevention.

Prevalence and associated factors of intestinal parasitisation: a cross-sectional study among outpatients with gastrointestinal symptoms in Catalonia, Spain

The aim of this study was to report the prevalence of intestinal parasites in stool specimens from outpatients in Catalonia (Spain), and to evaluate the association of age, seasonality, and gender on general parasitisation and by the most frequent detected species. A total of 13,913 samples from 8,313 patients (1-3 specimens per patient) reporting digestive disorders were examined between 1999 and 2005 as a part of medical examinations. Samples were fixed with MIF solution and microscopically examined as wet mounts. Permanent stain was obtained by the modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique for intestinal coccidia. Nineteen species of intestinal parasites were identified. Blastocystis hominis (585 patients) was the predominant species, followed by Giardia duodenalis (321), Dientamoeba fragilis (131), Entamoeba coli (60) and Cryptosporidium sp. (59). Prevalence of helminths was low, being Enterobius vermicularis as the most frequently reported helminth (49 patients). The overall parasitisation was 1,136/8,313 (13.7%); prevalence in adults was 19.8% with a maximum in spring (14.8%). In the adjusted models, age was the main factor associated with infection: adults, with B. hominis and Entamoeba coli (odds ratio (OR) = 6.0 and OR = 8.5, respectively) and children, with Cryptosporidium and Giardia (OR = 2.0 and OR = 3.3, respectively). However, seasonality cannot be considered related with infection. The total prevalence was low, taking into account that all the subjects examined presented gastrointestinal symptoms and that species traditionally considered as non-pathogenic were included in the study.

Environmental Monitoring of Opportunistic Protozoa in Rivers and Lakes in the Neotropics Based on Yearly Monitoring

The goal of this study was to standardise and use parasitological and molecular techniques in the analysis and seasonal monitoring of opportunistic protozoa in water from fluvial systems for human usage in the municipality of Goiânia, the capital of the state of Goias, in the mid- western region of Brazil. We focused on Cryptosporidium sp. Cyclospora cayetanensis, Isopora belli, Microsporidia and Giardia lamblia. Water samples were collected monthly from February 2006 to January 2007 and concentrated using vacuum filtration and a positively charged membrane. Sev- eral methods were used to identify the different protozoa of interest. To detect coccidia (Cryptosporidium sp., Isospora belli, and Cyclospora cayetanensis), we used a Kinyoun hot- staining method and a modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique. Enteral microsporidia were detected by a hot-chromotrope technique while a MERIFLUOR ® Cryptosporidium kit was used to confirm the presence of Cryptosporidium sp. Finally, we used PCR to detect Cryptosporidium parvum/hominis. Water is of vital importance to living beings; however, due to anthropic action, several microorganisms are disseminated into aquatic environments. Among them are opportunistic protozoa that infect mainly immunodepressed and immuno- suppressed individuals, children and elderly people. These protozoa pose a significant health hazard. Nevertheless, the presence of these pathogens is underestimated because they are not considered during routine environmental monitor- ing. In our study, we were able to observe the presence of Giardia cysts, Cryptosporidium sp. and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in the bodies of water monitored in this re- search.

Intestinal Parasites Infection among Immunocompromised Patients in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites among immunocompromised patients in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Fecal samples were collected from 136 immunocompromised patients (52 females and 84 males), aged 2 to 69 years. Specimens were fixed with 10% formalin for 30 min (2-3 g fecal(-1)) and then concentrated by a formalin-ether sedimentation technique. Samples were examined as wet saline mounts and in iodine preparation for detection of protozoan oocysts, cysts, helminthic eggs and larvae. Permanent stained smears were performed for intestinal coccidian parasites by the modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique and the modified trichrome stain. Intestinal parasites were detected in 54 (39.7%) most of them (25.7%) were with diarrhea. More specifically the following parasites were detected Cryptosporidium parvum 11(8.1%), Giardia lamblia 9 (6.6%), Cyclospora cayetanensis 8 (5.9%), Blastocystis hominis 7 (5.2%), Entamoeba histolytica 7 (5.2%), Entamoeba coli 5 (3.7%), Strongyloides stercoralis 3 (2.2%), Ascaris lumbricoides 1 (0.7%), Hymenolepis nana 1 (0.7%), Dicrocoelium dendriticum 1 (0.7%) and Hook worm 1 (0.7%). The most common parasite associated with diarrhea in patients, was C. parvum (p < 0.001), followed by G. lamblia, C. cayetanensis and E. histolytica. However, differences between different age groups were statistically non-significant. Similarly, no significant difference in the infection rate were found between male and female patients.

Cryptosporidium and Strongyloides stercoralis infections among people with and without HIV infection and efficiency of diagnostic methods for Strongyloides in Yirgalem Hospital, southern Ethiopia

BackgroundCryptosporidiosis and strongyloidiasis have been reported to be associated with HIV/AIDS. The present study was designed to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Strongyloides stercoralis infections among people with and without HIV infection and also assess the efficient methods for detection of Strongyloides.FindingsA cross-sectional study was conducted in Yirgalem Hospital, southern Ethiopia from March, 2007 to October, 2007. Demographic data and stool samples were collected from 384 individuals (192 from each HIV serogroup). Samples were processed using the modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique for detection of Cryptosporidium species. Stool samples were also processed using the direct saline mount, the formol-ether and the water-emergence techniques for diagnosis of S. stercoralis. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium and S. stercoralis among HIV infected individuals was 25% and 12.0%, respectively. HIV positive individuals had significantly higher rate of infection with Cryptosporidium (OR = 15.7; 95% CI 5.5 to 44.5) and S. stercoralis (OR = 6.4; 95% CI 2.2 to 18.9). Among the three diagnostic methods, the larvae of S. stercoralis were more efficiently detected by the water-emergence technique.ConclusionsIn this study, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and S. stercoralis infections was significantly higher among people with HIV/AIDS. Educating HIV infected individuals to prevent acquisition of Cryptosporidium infection and screening for S. stercoralis using the water-emergence technique is likely to be helpful.

Prevalence of Cryptosporidium isolated from dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Qeshm Island, Southern Iran

This study was undertaken to assess the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius) on Qeshm Island, southern Iran. Sixty-five faecal samples were obtained from camels (age range 2–12 years) housed in ten privately owned herds from three equal-length areas (west, east and central) on Qeshm Island, southern Iran. All samples were analysed for Cryptosporidium oocysts by microscopic examination of smears stained by modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique. The parasite was detected in 11 camels (16.9%). The genus identity of the oocysts was confirmed by morphology and was similar to Cryptosporidium parvum. The mean (±SD) size of 225 oocysts was 5.1 (0.42) × 4.38 (0.27) µm (range 4.2–5.3 × 3.8–4.5 µm) with a shape index (length/width) of 1.17 (0.03; range 1.11–1.18). Data analyses indicated significant difference in prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in western and central areas compared with the eastern area. Numerous reports indicate that water is a major vehicle for transmission of cryptosporidiosis. Geographical studies in western and eastern areas show that areas of vegetation, lagoons and seasonal rivers in these two regions are more frequent than the eastern part. Possible source of contamination of these waters by Cryptosporidium may be related to sewage from human and faeces of domesticated and wild animals. Therefore, it is possible that water may be a predisposing factor for transmission of cryptosporidiosis in these areas.

Gastrointestinal parasites of owls (Strigiformes) kept in captivity in the Southern region of Brazil

The aim of this research was to study the gastrointestinal parasitism in 12 adult owls kept in captivity in the Southern region of Brazil. Cloacal contents of the species Rhinoptynx clamator, Tyto alba, Athene cunicularia, Megascops spp., and Bubo virginianus were evaluated. Feces and urine were collected and analyzed by the zinc sulfate centrifugal-flotation method and stained by the modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique. Eggs of Capillaria spp. and Strongylida, oocysts of Cryptosporidium spp., Eimeria spp., and Isospora spp. were observed. The birds showed no clinical signs, probably due to the mild nature of the infection.

First report of Cryptosporidium deer-like genotype in Kenyan cattle

The objective of the study was to identify Cryptosporidium genotypes from feces collected from urban and peri-urban dairy cattle in Nairobi, Kenya, in order to determine their zoonotic potential. DNA was extracted from 34 samples that were diagnosed positive by the modified Ziehl–Neelsen technique. Two Cryptosporidium isolates examined at the 18S rRNA locus were identified as the deer-like genotype by DNA sequencing. As public health officials are facing the difficult decision whether to allow urban livestock production because of its economic benefits and a livelihood asset to the urban communities, or to ban it for its public health risks, the finding of non-zoonotic genotypes in a smallholder dairy system has significant public health as well as economic implications that merit further investigation.

Prevalence ofCryptosporidiumspp. (Eucoccidiorida: Cryptosporiidae) in seven species of farm animals in Tunisia

1,001 faecal samples were obtained from 89 sheep (lambs and adult), 184 goats, 190 horses, 178 rabbits, 110 camels, 200 broiler chicken and 50 turkeys housed in farms from different localities in Tunisia. All samples were analysed for Cryptosporidium oocysts by microscopic examination of smears stained by modified Ziehl Neelsen technique. The parasite was detected in ten lambs and adult sheep (11.2 %) and nine broiler chicken (4.5 %). Molecular characterization, performed in four animals, identified C. bovis in three lambs and C. meleagridis in one broiler chicken. This work is the first report on Cryptosporidium in farm animals in Tunisia.

Cryptosporidium parvum(Eucoccidiorida: Cryptosporiidae) in calves: results of a longitudinal study in a dairy farm in Sfax, Tunisia

A longitudinal study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in a dairy farm in Sfax, Tunisia. 480 faecal samples were obtained from 30 calves under one month of age. All faecal samples were analysed for Cryptosporidium oocysts by microscopic examination of smears stained by modified Ziehl Neelsen technique. The parasite was detected in 26 calves (86.7%). Infection was significantly associated with diarrhoea. A molecular characterization, performed in seven calves, confirmed that isolates were C. parvum. This work is the first report on Cryptosporidium in calves in Tunisia.

Cryptosporidium Infection in Patients With Primary Immunodeficiencies

Cryptosporidium species infection is usually self-limited in immunocompetent populations, but can be severe and life-threatening among immunocompromised individuals, particularly in patients with AIDS and in these patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PIDs). A group of 5 patients with genetically confirmed hyper-IgM syndrome type 1 (XHIM) and one patient with primary CD4 lymphopenia were enrolled in the study. At least 2 stool samples and a bile sample in one patient were examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts by a modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique, by immunofluorescence assay using a commercial kit, as well as by molecular analysis followed by genotyping. Immunological status at the time of PID diagnosis and the complex picture of disease are presented. Chronic cryptosporidiosis was confirmed in 3 patients with XHIM and in one patient with primary CD4 lymphopenia. Molecular diagnosis showed the presence of C parvum, C hominis, and C meleagridis in analyzed specimens. Cryptosporidium infection with serious clinical symptoms observed in patients with hyper-IgM syndrome calls for regular, repeated screening in this group of patients.

Prevalence and determinants of &lt;i&gt;Cryptosporidium&lt;/i&gt; spp. infection in smallholder dairy cattle in Iringa and Tanga Regions of Tanzania

The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. infection in a cross-sectional study of dairy cattle, from two contrasting dairying regions in Tanzania, were determined by staining smears of faecal samples with the modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique. Of the 1 126 faecal samples screened, 19.7% were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. The prevalence was lower in Tanga Region than in Iringa Region. The prevalence of affected farms was 20% in Tanga and 21% in Iringa. In both regions, the probability of detecting Cryptosporidium oocysts in faeces varied with animal class, but these were not consistent in both regions. In Tanga Region, Cryptosporidium oocysts were significantly more likely to be found in the faeces of milking cows. In Iringa Region, the likelihood that cattle had Cryptosporidium-positive faeces declined with age, and milking cattle were significantly less likely to have Cryptosporidium-positive faeces. In this region, 7% of cattle were housed within the family house at night, and this was marginally associated with a higher likelihood that animals had Cryptosporidium-positive faeces. Our study suggests that even though herd sizes are small, Cryptosporidium spp. are endemic on many Tanzanian smallholder dairy farms. These protozoa may impact on animal health and production, but also on human health, given the close associations between the cattle and their keepers. Further studies are required to assess these risks in more detail, and understand the epidemiology of Cryptosporidium spp. in this management system.

Symptomatic and Asymptomatic Cryptosporidiosis in Young Children in Iran

The present study was conducted during the period May 2003 to October 2003 in 616 children less than three years of age with and without diarrheal disease presenting at the pediatric clinic of teaching hospitals in Kermanshah, Iran. Single stool specimens were collected from 515 diarrheic and 99 non-diarrheic children. Two smears were made from each stool samples and were stained by a modified Ziehl Neelsen technique. Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum) were detected in 10.4% of children. The C. parvum infection rate was significantly higher in diarrheic children (11.6%) than in non-diarrheic children (4.0%). C. parvum was observed more frequently in stool samples of children who lived in rural areas (15.2%) than those who lived in urban areas (7.2%). In regard to the presence of animals, the infection rate was 18.5% among children who lived in association with animals in comparison with 8.2% among those who lived in compounds with no animals. The majority of C. parvum cases occurred in children between the ages of 0-12 months (11.9%), followed by in children between the ages of 13-24 months (9.2%) and in children between the ages of 25-36 months (3.0%). The data suggest that C. parvum is relatively endemic in young children and that Cryptosporidium may be an important pathogen associated with diarrhea in young children.

Intestinal parasitism in Magama Gumau rural village and Jos township in north central Nigeria

To determine the prevalence of intestinal parasitosis in one rural village and one urban centre in North Central Nigeria. A total of 111 single stool specimens from all the volunteered rural dwellers and 93 specimens from randomly selected urban dwellers were examined using Formol-ether and modified Ziehl-Neelsen techniques; during the months of June and July 2005. A questionnaire was completed for each subject and the nutritional status of the adults was assessed using the anthropometric measurements (weight and height for age and Biomass index). The results suggest very high prevalence rates of intestinal parasitosis of 72.1% and 69.9% for the rural and urban populations respectively. All the age groups were infected. The males in the rural area had a prevalence of 69.2% as against 74.6% in females (P>0.05); while in the urban area, the males were more significantly infected (77.4%) compared with the females with 66.1% (P< 0.05). Those with normal BMI (18.5-24.9 kg/m2) had the highest prevalence of 79.3% and 72.4% for the rural and urban populations respectively. The prevalence of the parasites in the rural and urban populations respectively were: Entamoeba coli (16.2% and 9.7%); E. histolytica (18.9% and 18.3%); E. hartmani (1.8% ad 0.0%); Endolimax nana (16.2% and 18.3%); Iodamoeba butschlii (0.0% and 1.1%); Giardia lamblia (7.2% and 4.3%); Schistosoma mansoni (9.9% and 0.0%); Strongyloides stercoralis (0.9% and 0.0%); Hookworm (4.5% and 5.4%); Ascaris lumbricoides (1.8% and 0.0%); Enterobius vermicularis (0.0% and 1.1%); Cryptosporidium parvum (29.7% and 19.4%); and Enterocytozoon bieneusi/Encephalitozoon intestinalis (39.6% and 47.3%). Polyparasitism was recorded in 48.6% of the rural subjects and 36.6% of the urban subjects. The study has shown a very high prevalence of intestinal parasitosis in both the rural and urban populations and that C. parvum and E. bieneusi/E. intestinalis are harboured by apparently healthy individuals.