Modified Cotton Fabrics Research Articles

Cotton fabric coated with graphene oxide nanosheets and CuO nanoparticles as a “dip catalyst” for the photocatalytic degradation of dyes

This research focuses on the immobilization in-situ of CuO nanoparticles on graphene oxide nanosheets modified cotton fabric (CuO/GO@CF) for the photodegradation, of organic dyes. The process involves coating the fabrics (CF) with graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets through sonication.The produced CuO, GO@CF, and CuO/GO@CF have been characterized utilizing various physicochemical methods, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourrier Transformed Infra-Red (FTIR), trans mission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).The catalytic activity of the nanocomposite was assessed by methylene blue (MB) oxidation. Additionally, a detailed analysis was conducted to determine how various parameters, including catalyst surface, pH, MB concentration and CuO loading (%), affected the degradation efficiency. The results showed that the 10 %CuO/5 %GO@CF with a surface of 4 cm2 (2 × 2 cm) exhibited the highest catalytic activity, achieving a MB removal efficiency of 82 % in 90 min. Additionally, after successive reaction cycles, the synthesized composite showed excellent stability and no appreciable drop-in catalytic activity. Moreover, it was shown that the primary reactive oxidative species (ROSs) in charge of the extremely effective MB breakdown were HO.. Lastly, catalyst stability and recyclability showed that CuO/GO@CF might be used as a substitute photocatalyst for environmental cleanup and dye degradation. This synthetized composite can be easily added to and removed from the reaction solution while maintaining high catalytic performance in the removal of dyes and it could be beneficial in avoiding problems related to powder separation.

Antibacterial and wound healing activity of non-thermal plasma treated and MXene (Ti3C2TX)/ WO3 coated cotton fabrics

In this study, MXene (Ti3C2Tx)/WO3 nanocomposite was directly deposited on the surface of non-thermal plasma treated cotton fabrics. Initially, argon was used as a plasma forming gas to treat the surface of cotton fabrics. Subsequently, the MXene (Ti3C2Tx)/WO3 nanocomposite was deposited on the surface of non-thermal plasma treated cotton fabrics by co-precipitation method. As prepared cotton fabrics were characterized by various characterization techniques that includes, X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) with energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, and Contact Angle (CA) measurement. SEM and FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of MXene (Ti3C2Tx)/WO3 nanocomposite on the surface of cotton fabrics. In addition, contact angle analysis unveiled the super hydrophilic nature of cotton fabrics after surface modification. The antibacterial activity and the wound healing assay of the untreated and surface modified cotton fabrics were examined by in vitro analysis. Results unveiled that the surface modified cotton fabrics showed excellent antibacterial activity against gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli) and gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus) and substantial wound healing activity. From this investigation it is inferred that plasma treated and nanocomposite functionalised cotton fabrics have the potential to be employed as wound dressing material.

Phytic acid-induced durable fire-proof and hydrophobic complex coating for versatile cotton fabrics

To address the current development requirements for multifunctional cotton fabrics, a phytic acid-induced flame-retardant hydrophobic coating containing nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and silicon (Si) was grafted on the surface of cotton fabrics using a facile step-by-step immersion method. The limiting oxygen index value improved to 31.2 %, decreasing to 26.7 % after 50 laundering cycles, while the fabric remained self-extinguishing effect in the vertical flammability test and showed a water contact angle of 126.1°. Cone calorimetry test showed that the modified fabric could not be ignited at the irradiation heat flux of 35 kW/m2. When the irradiation heat flux was raised to 50 kW/m2, there was a significant decline in the peak heat release rate of the modified cotton fabric, which decreased by 43.2 % to a remarkably low value of 114.0 kW/m2, indicating excellent flame-retardant properties. The analysis of the flame-retardant mechanism uncovered that the modified coating exhibited a significant dual flame-retardant mechanism involving both the gaseous phase and the condensed phase. Additionally, the oil-water separation tests revealed that the separation efficiency of the modified cotton fabrics was as high as 97.1 % and remained around 96 % after 10 cycles, which made them reusable for the clean-up of hazardous chemicals.

A system with efficient flame retardant and antibacterial properties for the development of exceptional durable functional cotton fabrics

Phosphorus-based flame retardants are widely employed in the study of flame retardancy for cotton fabrics due to their halogen-free nature and high efficiency. The addition of nitrogen and other elements can further enhance flame retardant properties through synergistic effects. However, the synthesis of flame-retardant multifunctional additives based on phosphoramidic ammonium salts has been scarcely reported. In this study, a halogen-free and formaldehyde-free phosphoramidite ammonium salt was synthesized as a synergistic flame retardant multifunctional additive. This compound, with phosphorus as the primary flame retardant element and a nitrogen-containing guanidine group, was used to modify cotton fabrics. The treated fabrics exhibited enhanced flame retardant and antibacterial properties. Notably, cotton fabrics treated with a 17.9 % weight gain showed a damaged length of 4 cm in the vertical flame test, and the LOI value increased to 41.5 %, remaining at 27.3 % even after 50 washing cycles. The results of the cone calorimeter test (CCT) revealed that the peak heat release rate (PHRR) and total heat release (THR) of treated cotton were 30.35 kW/m2 and 5.46 MJ/m2, respectively, representing reductions of 87.04 % and 36.07 % compared to untreated cotton. Physical performance tests indicated only a slight decrease in the strength and whiteness of the cotton fabrics, while softness increased after treatment. Moreover, the treated cotton fabric exhibited excellent antibacterial properties, with antibacterial rates of 99.26 % against E. coli and 98.54 % against S. aureus.

A multifunctional aspect of surface modification of cotton fabric with green synthesized titanium dioxide/iron nanocomposite using Psidium guajava leave extract

This study explores the use of green TiO2/Fe nanocomposite for surface modification of cotton fabric, aiming to minimize its limitations such as wrinkle, shrinkage, lower photocatalytic activity, microbial degradation, and poor durability. To prepare the nanocomposite, the iron (Fe) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles were first green synthesized using an extract of guava leaf (Psidium guajava) and mixed by using citric acid as a cross-linking agent. The modified cotton fabric was characterized by FTIR, TGA, DTG, SEM, and EDS. The FTIR spectra of the modified fabrics showed additional peaks at 483 cm−1 for Ti-O- and 1059 cm−1 for Fe-O-, indicating the incorporation of TiO2/Fe- nanoparticles which was also confirmed by SEM images. Fe nanoparticles enhanced TiO2 NPs’ photocatalytic activity, enhancing self-cleaning, UV resistance, stain resistance, anti-water absorption, and antibacterial activity in modified cotton fabric. Additionally, the wettability, thermal stability, mechanical and chemical stability of modified cotton fabric were also improved. As a result, the method of surface modification has great potential to improve the sustainability and usability of cotton fabric, supporting its wide range of uses in clothing, medical, and personal hygiene goods.

Block copolymer brushes modified cotton fabric for antifouling oil-water separation materials with thermal responsiveness

Polymer brushes have proven to have great potential in oil-water separation but it remains a long-standing challenge to improve their operational stability and service endurance. In this work, we sequentially grafted polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and poly (N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) brushes on the cotton fabric to prepare a durable and self-reparing oil-water separation film (Co@PDMS/PNIPAM). The grafting of liquid PDMS brushes significantly improved the antifouling performance through its lubricating effect thereby improving the durability. The hydrophilic and thermoresponsive PNIPAM was synthesized through a surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ARGET ATRP). Co@PDMS/PNIPAM shows high flux in various oily water and bio-solution. More remarkably, Co@PDMS/PNIPAM exhibited intelligent self-repairing characteristics, and this further enhances its stability and service endurance in the application of oil-water separation. The results provide pathways to the preparation of antifouling and durable membranes in the application of water treatment, and resource recovery.

Flexible, breathable, and durable superhydrophobic cotton fabric modified by behenic acid, tung oil, and ZIF-8 with anti-icing and self-cleaning properties

Textiles with self-cleaning and anti-icing capabilities in cold climates are essential for outdoor workers and enthusiasts. Superhydrophobic modification of textile surfaces is effective in imparting these characteristics. Although there are numerous methods available for manufacturing superhydrophobic textiles, careful consideration is warranted for environmental concerns over fluorochemicals, stability of superhydrophobic coatings, and fabric breathability. In this work, we utilized biomass resources such as tung oil and behenic acid, along with zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8), to modify cotton fabrics, thereby creating an innovative behenic acid/tung oil/ZIF-8 modified cotton (BTZC) fabric with anti-icing and self-cleaning features. This material manifests a unique nanoflower-shaped surface morphology, demonstrating exceptional superhydrophobicity with a static water contact angle (CA) of 162° and a sliding angle (SA) of 2°. Moreover, BTZC excels in its thermal stability, breathability, and resistance to icing. Equally impressive is its robust stability, as evidenced through rigorous testing under continuous washing and abrasion, sustained high and low temperatures, extreme pH environments, and immersion in various chemical solvents. BTZC presents as a fluorine-free, durable, economically viable alternative for outdoor textile applications, marking substantial progress in the utilization of biomass and metal-organic framework materials in the textile industry and promising implications for value enhancement.

Fabrication of multifunctional cotton fabrics with quaternized N-halamine endowing the synergetic rechargeable antibacterial, wound healing and self-cleaning performances

Cotton has attracted considerable attention due to its functional characteristics. The focus of research on cotton has shifted in recent years towards designing multi-functional and modified media for cotton fibers, which can be firmly combined with textiles, giving them reusability and extending their service life. This study constructed a synergistic antibacterial layer of quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) and N-halamine (Hals) using an in-situ free radical copolymerization method in water, named QACs/Hals@cotton-Cl. The route significantly increases the number of antibacterial active centers. FTIR, XPS, and SEM were used to systematically analyze the product's chemical structure, surface morphology, and other characteristics. The modified fabric's antibacterial efficiency, wound healing, renewability, and durability were also evaluated. The chlorinated modified cotton fabric could completely eradicate S. aureus and E. coli within 10 min. Compared with pure cotton, it notably promoted the healing rate of infected wounds in mice. The modification method imparted excellent hydrophobicity to the cotton fabric, with a contact angle exceeding 130°, making it easy to remove surface stains. After 30 days of regular storage and 24 h of UV irradiation, the active chlorine concentration (Cl+%) only decreased by 25 % and 39 %, respectively, and the reduced Cl+% was effectively recharged via simple re-chlorination. The hydrophobicity and antimicrobial properties of QACs/Hals@cotton-Cl remained stable even after 20 cycles of friction. This simple synthesis technique provides a convenient approach for the scalable fabrication of multifunctional and rechargeable antibacterial textiles, with potential applications in medical devices and personal hygiene protection.

Lightweight, breathable and self-cleaning polypyrrole-modified multifunctional cotton fabric for flexible electromagnetic interference shielding

The thriving of wearable electronics and the emerging new requirements for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding have driven the innovation of EMI shielding materials towards lightweight, wearability and multifunctionality. Herein, the hierarchical polypyrrole nanotubes (PNTs)/PDMS structures are rationally constructed on the textile for obtaining multifunctional and flexible EMI shielding textiles by in-situ polymerization and surface coating. The modified cotton fabric possesses a conductivity of about 2715.8 S/m and an SET of 28.2 dB in the X band when the thickness is only 0.5 mm. After ultrasonic treatment, cyclic bending and washing, the conductivity and EMI shielding performance remain stable and exhibit long-term durability. Importantly, the textile's inherent lightweight, breathable and soft properties have been completely retained after modification. This work shows application potentiality in the field of EMI pollution protection and affords a novel path for the construction of multifunctionally wearable and durable EMI shielding materials.

Stable and Durable Superhydrophobic Cotton Fabrics Prepared via a Simple 1,4-Conjugate Addition Reaction for Ultrahigh Efficient Oil-Water Separation.

Superhydrophobic materials used for oil-water separation have received wide attention. However, the simple and low-cost strategy for making durable superhydrophobic materials remains a major challenge. Here, this work reports that stable and durable superhydrophobic cotton fabrics can be prepared using a simple two-step impregnation process. Silica nanoparticles are surface modified by hydrolysis condensation of 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane (APTMS). 1,4-conjugate addition reaction between the acrylic group of cross-linking agent pentaerythritol triacrylate (PETA) and the amino group of octadecylamine (ODA) forms a covalent cross-linked rough network structure. The long hydrophobic chain of ODA makes the cotton fabric exhibit excellent superhydrophobic properties, and the water contact angle (WCA) of the fabric surface reaches 158°. The modified cotton fabric has good physical and chemical stability, self-cleaning, and anti-fouling. At the same time, the modified fabric shows excellent oil/water separation efficiency (98.16% after 20 cycles) and ultrahigh separation flux (15413.63 L m-2 h-1) due to its superhydrophobicity, superoleophilicity, and inherent porous structure. The method provides a broad prospect in the future diversification applications of oil/water separation and oil spill cleaning.

SUSTAINABLE DYEING OF MODIFIED COTTON FABRIC WITH REMAZOL DYES IN THE ABSENCE OF SALT AND ALKALI

This research work investigates the chemical modification of cotton cellulose with a cationizing agent (CHPTAC, 3-chloro-2-hydroxylpropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride), which resulted in the enhanced dye uptake and increased color strength (K/S) on the dyed cotton fabric in the absence costly auxiliaries, such as sodium chloride and sodium hydroxide. The modified and unmodified cotton fabric samples were dyed using the exhaust dyeing method on a high-temperature dyeing machine with several reactive dyes of the Remazol class in different shade depths. The dyed samples were washed, dried and tested for K/S and colorfastness properties (washing, rubbing, and light), using standard test protocols. The results revealed that the color strength and the colorfastness properties of the modified dyed cotton fabric were significantly better than those of unmodified cotton. Thus, this study attempted a sustainable approach in cotton dyeing without using salt and alkali.

In-Situ Synthesis of CuO/TiO2 Nanocomposite Onto Amine Modified Cotton Fabric for Antibacterial Durability and UV Protection

ABSTRACT In this research work, we explore antibacterial activity and the UV-protection of cotton fabric functionalized with copper oxide-titanium dioxide nano composites particles (CuO+TiO2 NCPs). Cotton fabrics (Cot) were treated with L-methionine (Am) and functionalized with bimetallic CuO+TiO2 NCPs by pad and rolling technique. Cu(NO3)2 and titanium isopropoxide (TIP) were used as sources of Cu(OH)2 and TiO2 colloid respectively, which were then converted into CuO and TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) for making antibacterial and UV-protective cotton. The method yielded a crystallite size of CuO and TiO2 NPs of 18.09 and 32.5 nm, respectively. FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, High-resolution scanning electron microscopy-Energy dispersive Spectroscopy (HRSEM), (EDS), X-ray photo spectroscopy (XPS), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and XRD were used to analyze the functional group, morphology, chemical composition, thermal stability and crystalline structure of the functionalized cotton fabric samples. The results showed that an esterification reaction occurred between Am and OH in cotton fabric, which further enhanced the binding of NCPs. AmCot-CuO+TiO2 NCPs exhibit outstanding antibacterial activity against gram-positive S. aureus and gram-negative E. coli. The UV protection factor (UPF) for AmCot-CuO+TiO2 NCPs reached 50+; thus, multifunctional cotton fabrics with excellent antibacterial and anti-ultraviolet properties were obtained.

Structure-property relationship of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes/polydimethylsiloxane superhydrophobic coatings for cotton fabrics

Cotton fabrics are extensively utilized in daily life due to striking advantages such as softness, breathability, skin-friendliness, and cheapness. However, they are susceptible to being contaminated owing to inherent amphiphilicity, severely affecting service lifespan and aesthetic perception. To address this issue, three distinct types of the POSS/PDMS composite coatings are explored, and applied to cotton fabrics, respectively. Subsequently, the correlations between structures of POSS and properties of the composite coatings on the modified cotton fabrics are discussed. The results show that the three types of the POSS/PDMS composite coatings impart the modified fabrics with robust superhydrophobicity even in harsh environments including mechanical damage, chemical corrosion and UV-irradiation. Notably, the damaged POSS/PDMS composite coatings on cotton fabrics can exhibit excellent superhydrophobic self-healing capability by simple heating. Meanwhile, the modified fabrics also show excellent performances in self-cleaning, anti-fouling, anti-icing and oil-water separation applications. Additionally, due to multifunctional groups of MTPOSS, the cotton fabric treated by the MTPOSS/PDMS composite coating exhibits more excellent thermal, mechanical, and UV protection properties without significantly compromising its air permeability as compared to those of the other coated cotton fabrics. This work will pave the way to exploitation and applications of novel multifunctional textiles.

Pd(0) decorated MnO2 modified cotton fabric: a bio-based catalyst for organic transformations

Pd(0) decorated MnO2 modified cotton fabric: a bio-based catalyst for organic transformations

Developed Photocatalytic Cotton Fabric with Agricultural By-Products Tea Saponins for Accelerating Aqueous Chromium(VI) Reductive Removal

ABSTRACT In order to achieve the goal of preparing functional textiles using tea saponin, in this work, carboxymethylated tea saponin (CTS) was used to modify cotton fabrics by an industrial rolling and baking process, and then functional textiles could be obtained after coordination with Fe3+, which could remove Cr species from water by photocatalytic reduction and adsorption processes. High CTS concentrations and higher treatment temperatures led to an increase in the carboxyl group content (QCOOH) and Fe content (QFe) of the obtained Fe-CTS-Cotton. The increase in the QFe value of the functional textiles favored the photocatalytic reduction of Cr(VI). Fe-CTS-Cotton with high QCOOH values showed excellent adsorption performance for the generated Cr(III) ions during the adsorption process. Therefore, the high photocatalytic reduction efficiency and strong Cr(III) ion trapping ability were the reasons for the recycling of Fe-CTS-cotton as a hybrid photocatalyst for enhanced removal of Cr(VI).

Sustainable dyeing of chemically modified cotton fabric with reactive dyes in acidic condition

Sustainable dyeing of chemically modified cotton fabric with reactive dyes in acidic condition

Cotton fabrics modified with tannic acid/1-eicosanamine grafting layer for oil/water separation

The wettability of the surface of hydrophilic cotton fabrics was modified using a one-step protocol with tannic acid (TA) to provide its excess catechol groups to be grafted with 1-eicosanamine at pH 8.5 and room temperature with catalysts CuSO4/H2O2. The modification over the synthesis conditions revised the contact angles of water and diiodomethane droplets from 132.68 ± 0.49° to 143.95 ± 0.80° and from 100.08°±1.42° to 82.96 ± 1.38°, respectively. The corresponding dispersive of the so-yielded cotton surface ranged from 8.6 to 16.0 mJ/m2, and the polar components ranged from 0.08 to 2.7 mJ/m2, much lower than polytetrafluoroethylene. The modified cotton fabrics are omniphobic and can repel water and commercial oil products. The absorption tests revealed that the modified cotton fabrics absorbed 1.10 g hexane/g cotton by contacting hexane (top)-water (bottom) layers and absorbed 1.26 g hexane/g cotton by contacting water first for 30 s, then hexane for another 30 s. The modified fabrics reveal good absorption reusability as hexane absorbent is even pre-saturated with water. This conclusion is also valid for commercial unleaded gasoline #95 and diesel. A parametric study revealed that the added catalysts and prolonged reaction time would enhance the hydrophobicity of the surface. These modified cotton fabrics can absorb oil from water and oil spills. Mechanisms corresponding to this observation are discussed.

Preparation of Janus structural colors with different hydrophilicity by spraying hydrophobic P(HFBMA-co-GMA) microspheres on polydopamine modified cotton fabrics

Structural colors forming by photonic crystal microspheres as a novel coloring method has received more and more attention in many fields. However, photonic crystal polymer microspheres usually do not have special functions, which limits their application. In this study, a novel polymer photonic crystal microspheres of poly (hexafluorobutyl methacrylate-co-glycidyl methacrylate) (P(HFBMA-co-GMA)) containing hydrophobic functional groups and reactive epoxy groups were synthesized. The structural colorized cotton fabrics with Janus characteristic of different colors and different hydrophilicity of two sides were prepared by spraying the functional P(HFBMA-co-GMA) microspheres on the polydopamine (PDA) modified cotton fabrics. P(HFBMA-co-GMA) microspheres can self-assemble into amorphous photonic crystals (APCs) with long-range disordered and short-range ordered on PDA modified cotton fabrics, showing crack-free and bright structural colors. The Janus structural colorized cotton fabrics with four different colors were obtained by spraying the P(HFBMA-co-GMA) microspheres with different particle diameters which were prepared by changing the molar ratios of HFBMA and GMA. The Janus structural colorized cotton fabrics have excellent flexibility, air permeability and colorfastness showing a good application prospect in functional textiles. This research provides a new strategy to prepare the functional structural color fabrics with Janus characteristic based on the synthesis of the functional polymer microspheres.

Study on the Modification and Properties of Silk Sericin Protein/Nano-Titanium Dioxide Composite for Textile Applications

Abstract Silk sericin protein is a natural high-molecular-weight compound that contains eighteen types of amino acids. It is non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible, with simple preparation methods and low cost. It finds widespread application in functional clothing, medical and pharmaceutical fields, tissue engineering, and more. Nano-titanium dioxide, on the other hand, possesses non-toxic, self-cleaning, antibacterial, and deodorizing properties. To develop multifunctional textiles with deodorization, UV protection, and good thermal and mechanical properties, this study utilized a compounding method to modify citric acid-pre-treated cotton fabrics through a two-dipping and two-padding process using a blend finishing solution of silk sericin protein and nano-titanium dioxide. Observations of the microstructure before and after fabric finishing, along with evaluations of deodorization, UV protection, and thermal properties, revealed that controlling the proportion of the silk sericin protein/nano-titanium dioxide blend finishing solution can result in a smooth surface of the modified cotton fabric. This modification not only enhances the fabric’s UV protection and tensile strength but also improves its thermal properties while imparting certain deodorization capabilities. Comprehensive analysis concludes that using silk sericin protein and nano-titanium dioxide for modifying cotton fabric to prepare multifunctional textiles with deodorization, UV protection, and good thermal and mechanical performance is feasibly viable.

Fabrication of a superhydrophobic cotton fabric with efficient antibacterial properties and asymmetric wettability via synergistic effect of quaternized chitosan/TiO2/Ag

A superhydrophobic cotton fabric with unidirectional moisture transfer ability, antibacterial, and oil-water separation capabilities was fabricated by combining a simple coating method and oxygen plasma etching. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) was employed to impart low surface energy to the cotton fabric, thereby endowing it with hydrophobic characteristics. The synthesized quaternized chitosan/TiO2/Ag (CTA) compound was subsequently applied onto the cotton fabric surface to introduce a desirable level of surface roughness, thus enhancing its hydrophobic properties and conferring excellent antibacterial efficacy. The cotton was subsequently treated by oxygen plasma to trigger asymmetrical wetting on both sides. The experimental findings reveal that the optimally treated cotton fabric exhibits hydrophobic properties on the bottom surface, with a water contact angle (WCA) reaching 162.8°, while the upper surface displays hydrophilic behavior, establishing a wetting gradient along the thickness direction. Notably, even under the influence of reverse gravity, water droplets are capable of transferring from the back to the top surface within 2 s, while preventing reverse penetration of liquid. Moreover, the synthesized compound CTA endows the cotton fabric with efficient and long-lasting antibacterial properties through two modes (contact and release sterilization modes) and three sterilization mechanisms (electrostatic interaction, plasma surface resonance effect, and reactive oxygen species). Remarkably, within a time frame of only 1 h, the modified cotton fabric is able to achieve a kill rate exceeding 99% against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Moreover, the aforementioned properties demonstrate outstanding durability against repeated washing, continuous abrasion, exposure to strong acid/base, and ultraviolet radiation. Additionally, this modified cotton fabric exhibits remarkable efficiency in terms of oil-water separation, effectively separating both light and heavy oil from water. It is worth noting that the preparation process is cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and free from fluorine.