Modes Of Information Processing Research Articles

Willingness to pay for advice: The role of rational and experiential processing

Everyday, millions of decision makers receive advice from one or more sources. Although research has addressed some of the issues concerning how people take and use advice that they are given, less is known about the psychological processes that underlie decision makers’ willingness to pay for advice. In the present research, we explore the important role that mode of information processing and decision-specific knowledge have on willingness to pay for advice. In a pretest and two experiments, we use a priming procedure to induce either a rational or experiential mode of processing. We find that people processing information rationally are willing to pay substantially more for advice than those who are processing information experientially, and that this effect is moderated by the individual’s decision-specific knowledge.

Higher Derivatives of ERP Responses to Cross-Modality Processing

Determining the links between cognitive processes and neuroelectrical brain activity (i.e., event-related potentials, ERPs) depends strongly on our understanding of how this activity fluctuates in response to stimuli; however, the way in which changes in ERP amplitudes can accelerate and decelerate over time has received only scant attention. The present study demonstrates that moment-to-moment changes (i.e., derivatives) of ERP responses convey information that is not readily accessible from the amplitude of response. Subjects exposed to visual and auditory stimuli either alone (unimodal) or combined (crossmodal) yielded different responses according to particular derivatives of ERP activation. In particular, an effect of cross-modality integration (stronger activation for crossmodal compared to unimodal stimuli) was detected in the higher derivatives of activation of a number of electrode sites spanning a fronto-centro-parietal distribution; in most sites, no such effect was detected in the amplitude of waveforms itself. These results suggest that information may be carried by the higher derivatives of ERP responses, and that distinct topographic distributions are associated with different derivatives of response. These different derivatives of response may in turn relate to different strategies for sensory processing in the brain, and in particular reflect a fundamental mode of information processing by time derivatives previously reported in cortex.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Visual Perception

Membrane potentials and spike sequences represent the basic modes of cerebral information processing. Both can be externally modulated in humans by quite specific techniques: transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS). These methods induce reversible circumscribed cortical excitability changes, either excitatory or inhibitory, outlasting stimulation in time. Experimental pharmacological interventions may selectively enhance the duration of the aftereffects. Whereas rTMS induces externally triggered changes in the neuronal spiking pattern and interrupts or excites neuronal firing in a spatially and temporally restricted fashion, tDCS modulates the spontaneous firing rates of neurons by changing resting-membrane potential. The easiest and most common way of evaluating the cortical excitability changes is by applying TMS to the motor cortex, since it allows reproducible quantification through the motor-evoked potential. Threshold determinations at the visual cortex or psychophysical methods usually require repeated and longer measurements and thus more time for each data set. Here, results derived from the use of tDCS in visual perception, including contrast as well as motion detection and visuo-motor coordination and learning, are summarised. It is demonstrated that visual functions can be transiently altered by tDCS, as has been shown for the motor cortex previously. Up- and down-regulation of different cortical areas by tDCS is likely to open a new branch in the field of visual psychophysics.

Re‐emerging conceptual integration: commentary on Berkowitz's “On the Consideration of Automatic as well as Controlled Psychological Processes in Aggression”

In recent decades, researchers in various areas of psychology have challenged the claims of a single mode of information processing, and developed dual-process models of social behaviors. Although these theories differ on a number of dimensions, they all share the basic assumption that two different modes of information processing operate in making decision and copying behavior. In essence, the common distinction in these perspectives is between controlled vs. automatic, conscious vs. unconscious, and affective vs. cognitive modes of processing. The purpose of Berkowitz's article is to go beyond the notion of automatic processes in order to use classic notions of conditioning and displacement to explain aggressive behavior. I assert that an explanatory framework for psychology of aggression must be anchored not only in the new but also classic theoretical paradigms. However, progress in psychology does not rest solely on the accumulation of theoretical insights. It demands a large body of empirical facts, with attention to incongruities, discordances, and conceptual clarifications.

Perceptual Focus Effects in Choice

This article examines consumer choice as a function of the perceptual similarity of the options in the decision set. In particular, we examine a scenario in which a set of options is extended by adding alternatives that change its perceptual characteristics, increasing the salience of one of the options in the core set. In this context, we document that, contrary to normative predictions, perceptual focus can increase the choice share of one of the core options, even when the added alternatives are dominated by both options in the core set. We further show that the observed effect is a function of consumers' mode of information processing and is more pronounced in the context of intuitive (System 1) processing than analytic (System 2) processing.

The effects of analytical and experiential rumination on autobiographical memory specificity in individuals with a history of major depression

This study examined the relationship between analytical rumination and autobiographical memory specificity in participants with a history of depression. Participants completed the autobiographical memory test twice, once before and once after an 8min manipulation designed to increase either an abstract/analytical or concrete/experiential mode of information processing. Results indicated a significant three-way time (pre, post)×manipulation (analytical, experiential)×depressive rumination (high, low) interaction. This interaction was the result of a significant decline in memory specificity from pre- to post-manipulation in individuals reporting high levels of rumination about symptoms when depressed who were allocated to the analytical condition. The findings of this study extend previous work, suggesting that low memory specificity in formerly depressed patients may be a function of state levels of analytical self-focus, with this cognitive style being more easily reinstated in the recovery phase in those who report a greater trait tendency to ruminate about symptoms when low in mood.

The sleeping brain, the states of consciousness, and the human intelligence

AbstractA large number of experimental results clearly indicate that sleep has an important role for human intelligence. Sleep-wake stages and their specific patterns of brain activation and neuromodulation subserve human memory, states of consciousness, and modes of information processing that strongly relate to intelligence. Therefore, human intelligence should be explained in a broader framework than is implicated by neuroimaging data alone.

Designing Media Messages About Health and Nutrition: What Strategies Are Most Effective?

This report focuses on how to design media messages about nutrition that will persuade people to adopt healthful behaviors. The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) is used as a theoretical framework to explore different information-processing modes that individuals employ in a variety of communication situations. Studies from the fields of communication and psychology are briefly reviewed, with a focus on the source and message strategies that are most likely to persuade different types of audiences to change their nutritional attitudes and behaviors.

Behavioral state-dependent simultaneously change between the respiratory pattern and information processing mode in hippocampus

Behavioral state-dependent simultaneously change between the respiratory pattern and information processing mode in hippocampus

Processing of autobiographical memory retrieval cues in borderline personality disorder

Background Affective dysregulation in borderline personality disorder (BPD) in response to both external stimuli and memories has been shown to be associated with functional alterations of limbic and prefrontal brain areas. This study aimed to examine neuronal networks involved in autobiographical memory retrieval using standardized stimuli that gain autobiographical significance by illustrating marked solitary and social situations of human life. Methods Using event-related functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), we examined the processing of pictures from the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in 14 BPD patients and 14 controls. Results In both groups, TAT stimuli activated brain areas known to be involved in autobiographical memory retrieval. BPD subjects lacked differential amygdala, orbitofrontal and cingulate activations for TAT versus neutral stimuli. In the TAT condition, compared to controls, BPD subjects displayed increased BOLD responses in the bilateral orbitofrontal and insular regions, in the left anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex, as well as in the parietal and parahippocampal areas, consistent with a more aversive and arousing experience assessed by self-reports. Conclusions Increased BOLD responses during TAT processing in BPD subjects were in line with previously reported changes in anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices, which are known to be involved in memory retrieval. However, BPD subjects displayed hyperactivation in these areas for both TAT and neutral stimuli. The deficit of selective activation of areas involved in autobiographical memory retrieval suggests a general tendency towards a self-referential mode of information processing in BPD, or a failure to switch between emotionally salient and neutral stimuli.

Implementation science: a role for parallel dual processing models of reasoning?

BackgroundA better theoretical base for understanding professional behaviour change is needed to support evidence-based changes in medical practice. Traditionally strategies to encourage changes in clinical practices have been guided empirically, without explicit consideration of underlying theoretical rationales for such strategies. This paper considers a theoretical framework for reasoning from within psychology for identifying individual differences in cognitive processing between doctors that could moderate the decision to incorporate new evidence into their clinical decision-making.DiscussionParallel dual processing models of reasoning posit two cognitive modes of information processing that are in constant operation as humans reason. One mode has been described as experiential, fast and heuristic; the other as rational, conscious and rule based. Within such models, the uptake of new research evidence can be represented by the latter mode; it is reflective, explicit and intentional. On the other hand, well practiced clinical judgments can be positioned in the experiential mode, being automatic, reflexive and swift. Research suggests that individual differences between people in both cognitive capacity (e.g., intelligence) and cognitive processing (e.g., thinking styles) influence how both reasoning modes interact. This being so, it is proposed that these same differences between doctors may moderate the uptake of new research evidence. Such dispositional characteristics have largely been ignored in research investigating effective strategies in implementing research evidence. Whilst medical decision-making occurs in a complex social environment with multiple influences and decision makers, it remains true that an individual doctor's judgment still retains a key position in terms of diagnostic and treatment decisions for individual patients. This paper argues therefore, that individual differences between doctors in terms of reasoning are important considerations in any discussion relating to changing clinical practice.SummaryIt is imperative that change strategies in healthcare consider relevant theoretical frameworks from other disciplines such as psychology. Generic dual processing models of reasoning are proposed as potentially useful in identifying factors within doctors that may moderate their individual uptake of evidence into clinical decision-making. Such factors can then inform strategies to change practice.

Exploration in a dark open field: A shift from directional to positional progression and a proposed model of acquiring spatial information

Exploration in a dark open field undergoes three progressive changes: (i) an initial phase of spending equal amounts of time in various zones of the arena changes to staying in the corners, and ultimately spending most of the time in one corner; (ii) travel paths are first circular and scattered all over the arena, but gradually become anchored to one corner at which they start and end; (iii) traveled distance gradually decreases to that of the initial level seen in a lit open field. Altogether, rodents shift from a ‘looping’ exploration mechanism with feeble coupling with the environment, to ‘home base’ exploration which is firmly anchored to the environment. This shift also involves switching from momentary and sporadic to repeated returns to a specific, presumably familiar place, to which the animal navigates back from various other places. We suggest that this switching illustrates navigation first by directional and then by positional environmental cues, as hypothesized in the ‘parallel map theory’. We also suggest that the transition from looping to home base behavior is part of a hierarchal construction of space representation via three modes of spatial information processing: (i) piloting—sequential processing, based on moving from one landmark to the next; (ii) orienting—parallel processing, based on moving from one point to the next, with the same starting and ending point; (iii) navigating—continuous processing, based on continuously updating the position in relation to several locations in the environment (map navigation).

Noradrenergic Activation Amplifies Bottom-Up and Top-Down Signal-to-Noise Ratios in Sensory Thalamus

Thalamocortical cells receive sensory signals via primary sensory afferents and cortical signals via corticothalamic afferents. These signals are influenced by a variety of neuromodulators that are released in the thalamus during specific behavioral states. Hence, different neuromodulators may set different thalamic modes of sensory information processing. We found that noradrenergic activation affects sensory and corticothalamic signals in the whisker thalamus differently than cholinergic activation. Whereas cholinergic activation increases the spontaneous firing (noise) and enlarges the receptive fields of ventroposterior medial thalamus (VPM) cells, noradrenergic activation decreases spontaneous firing and focuses receptive fields. Consequently, for sensory signals, noradrenergic activation sets bottom-up thalamic processing to a focused and noise-free excitatory receptive field, which contrasts with the broad and noisy excitatory receptive field characteristic of cholinergic activation. For corticothalamic signals, noradrenergic activation sets top-down processing to a noise-free high-frequency signal detection mode, whereas cholinergic activation produces a noisy broadband signal detection mode. The effects of noradrenergic activation on signal-to-noise ratios of VPM cells were found to be mediated by nucleus reticularis thalamic (nRt) cells. Hence, a major role of nRt cells is to regulate the noise level of thalamocortical cells during sensory processing. In conclusion, different modulators establish distinct modes of bottom-up and top-down information processing in the sensory thalamus.

The Effects of Information Processing Mode on Consumers’ Responses to Comparative Advertising

We demonstrate that matching ad format to a consumer's mode of information processing enhances advertising effectiveness. Relative to noncomparative ads, comparative ads are more effective when consumers use analytical processing. Conversely, noncomparative ads are more effective than comparative ads when consumers use imagery processing. When ad format is compatible with processing mode, information processability is enhanced, making the message more persuasive and ad evaluations, brand evaluations, and purchase intentions more favorable than when ad format and processing mode are incompatible.

Depth of Reasoning and Information Processing: A Predictive Model of SARS Behavior

This research is contextualized in a special crisis situation, the SARS epidemic, in Macao to test a model of behavior prediction. We tackle questions and specify conditions in four areas through the analysis of the interrelationships among patterns of media use, modes of information processing, evaluative responses, and behaviors. A total probability sample of 526 Macao residents aged 15 or above was interviewed during the peak SARS outbreak period from May 7 to 10, 2003 in Macao. Corresponding to our research hypothesis, the data shed light on four aspects: first, fear of SARS might imply a stronger affective element than what would be expected from an attitude based on rational reasoning; second, a clear society–personal distinction at the cognitive level is identified; third, cognitive activities of two kinds of information processors, central processing mode and peripheral processing mode, have been shown to predict fear and behavior in opposite directions; and last, the role of attitude serving as a mediating mechanism between information processing and behavior is supported, in line with the O-S-O-R conception.

Intuition

Faced with today’s ill-structured business environment of fast-paced change and rising uncertainty, organizations have been searching for management tools that will perform satisfactorily under such ambiguous conditions. In the arena of managerial decision making, one of the approaches being assessed is the use of intuition. Based on our definition of intuition as a non-sequential information-processing mode, which comprises both cognitive and affective elements and results in direct knowing without any use of conscious reasoning, we develop a testable model of integrated analytical and intuitive decision making and propose ways to measure the use of intuition.

Visual field asymmetries in selective attention: Evidence from a modified search paradigm

The present study investigated visual field differences in selective attention. Five stimuli were briefly presented and subjects were asked to identify a predefined target. The target/distractor physical similarity varied systematically (low, medium or high) in order to encourage attentional resolving. Right/left hemifield differences were examined in Experiment 1, temporal/nasal hemifield differences in Experiment 2, and upper/lower hemifield differences in Experiment 3. Visual field differences were found only in Experiment 1 suggesting a left/right hemispheric asymmetry in selective attention. These asymmetries appear with increasing stimuli similarity, and suggest that each hemisphere gets involved when attentional selection cannot be carried out without the mode of information processing that characterizes that hemisphere. The absence of other hemifield asymmetries is not in favor of neither a subcortical, nor a specific superior occipito-parietal involvement in attentional resolving and selectivity.

CAPRI and RASAL impose different modes of information processing on Ras due to contrasting temporal filtering of Ca2+

The versatility of Ca2+ as a second messenger lies in the complex manner in which Ca2+ signals are generated. How information contained within the Ca2+ code is interpreted underlies cell function. Recently, we identified CAPRI and RASAL as related Ca2+-triggered Ras GTPase-activating proteins. RASAL tracks agonist-stimulated Ca2+ oscillations by repetitively associating with the plasma membrane, yet CAPRI displays a long-lasting Ca2+-triggered translocation that is refractory to cytosolic Ca2+ oscillations. CAPRI behavior is Ca2+- and C2 domain–dependent but sustained recruitment is predominantly Ca2+ independent, necessitating integration of Ca2+ by the C2 domains with agonist-evoked plasma membrane interaction sites for the pleckstrin homology domain. Using an assay to monitor Ras activity in real time, we correlate the spatial and temporal translocation of CAPRI with the deactivation of H-Ras. CAPRI seems to low-pass filter the Ca2+ signal, converting different intensities of stimulation into different durations of Ras activity in contrast to the preservation of Ca2+ frequency information by RASAL, suggesting sophisticated modes of Ca2+-regulated Ras deactivation.

Effects of constructivist-oriented instruction on elementary school students' cognitive structures

The purpose of this study was primarily to explore the effects of constructivist-oriented instruction on fifth graders' cognitive structures about biological reproduction. Furthermore, such effects on different science achievers were also investigated. The subjects of this study were 69 eleven year olds in Taiwan, who were assigned to either a constructivist-oriented instruction group or a traditional teaching group. The research treatment was conducted for three weeks, and the interview data were gathered a week later after the instruction about biological reproduction. The interview narratives were transcribed into ‘flow maps’. The information processing modes shown in the flow maps were also investigated through a series of content analysis. The results of this study revealed that students in the constructivist-oriented instruction group, in general, attained better learning outcomes about biological reproduction after instruction, both in terms of the extent of concepts and in the richness within their cognitive structures. Furthermore, the students in this group were probably better organised and stored their ideas in a higher-level mode of information processing, especially in the mode of ‘inferring or explaining’. However, high achievers and low achievers in the constructivist-oriented instruction attained better usage of information processing modes in somewhat different ways; only high achievers in the constructivist-oriented instruction group attained significantly better usage of high-order information processing modes.

Testing and Expanding a Model of Cognitive Processing of Risk Information

Scholars have begun to explore the role of modes of information processing and related audience characteristics in reactions to risky situations and risk information.((11, 12, 14, 17, 18, 20))"Information processing" concerns how people attend to and consider available information: systematic processors analyze messages and situations carefully, while heuristic processors skim and use cues (e.g., opinions of trusted reference groups) for quick judgments. This article uses scenarios about a semi-hypothetical industrial facility, in particular risk comparisons being considered by its manager for inclusion in a talk to the community, to explore the impact of information processing. Information insufficiency, self-assessed capacity to understand information, and information-seeking propensities are tested for potential effects on information processing about industrial risks by people living near industry. As well as testing established models, this article explores the additional explanatory value of involvement, relevance, and ability (Earle et al., 1990) and objective knowledge. Both existing model variables and new ones have significant effects on information seeking and information processing in this case, and partly confirm earlier results. Trumbo((17,18)) found that heuristic processors saw lower risk and systematic processors higher risk from suspected cancer clusters. In this study, reporting knowledge about local industrial risks as insufficient for one's purposes and self-reported avoidance of such information both raised ratings of the facility's risk and lowered ratings of its acceptability. Neither type of information processing significantly affected risk or acceptability judgments, but both increased risk ratings and heuristic processing had more effect than systematic processing. Positive ratings of risk comparisons' clarity and meaningfulness decreased risk and increased acceptability ratings, dominated other information variables in predictive power, and exceeded risk, benefit, and trust in contribution to acceptability judgments. Despite differences across studies in designs and variables, and the embryonic development of appropriate (self-reported) measures for use in field surveys, these results confirm the potential value of further research in how information seeking and processing affect risk beliefs and reactions to risk communications.