Modern Reindeer Research Articles

АКТУАЛЬНЫЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ ТРАДИЦИОННЫХ ВИДОВ ХОЗЯЙСТВЕННОЙ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ КОРЕННЫХ НАРОДОВ СЕВЕРА

The article analyzes modern approaches to the traditional economy of the indigenous peoples of the North based on the analysis of the Finnish, Norwegian and Canadian traditional economies. There are major transformations in the traditional economy that are characteristic of today's indigenous communities. Two basic models can be distinguished: Norwegian and Canadian. The Norwegian model is characterized by state funding of the traditional reindeer herding of the Saami, but at the same time the Saami themselves do not have large economic resources and do not have significant political influence in the local and regional space of Norway. The Canadian model is characterized by the presence of investment funds that are formed in the interests of improving the welfare of the indigenous peoples of northern Canada. The proceeds from these funds are used by Canadian Indigenous communities to develop all forms of local and regional economies where these communities live. As a result, their economic well-being increases, and gradually they acquire more and more economic and political influence in their places of traditional residence. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the conclusions that can be drawn by analyzing the factors affecting the traditional reindeer husbandry on the example of Finland. An important question remains unresolved: is the modern reindeer herding of indigenous peoples a traditional economic activity, or has the threshold already been passed, and indigenous peoples are implementing not traditional, but other economic practices? To answer this question, local and regional studies of groups of factors that affect the traditional economy of the northern peoples in a given territory are needed. These factors will vary greatly. And, accordingly, the characteristics of the new economic practices that the indigenous peoples of the North are implementing today will also differ.

Osteometric Study of Metapodial Bones and Phalanges as Indicators of the Behavioural Ecology of Modern Reindeer (<i>Rangifer tarandus</i>) and Implications for Reconstruction of Paleo Mobility

Paleolithic reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) played an important role for human populations in western and central Europe during much of the Paleolithic period. In southwestern France and in particular during the Magdalenian, reindeer frequently figures among the privileged prey of hunter-gatherer groups. However, and despite numerous attempts to reconstruct the migratory behavior of Paleolithic reindeer, there is no agreement on the degree of mobility of this prey. Modern ethological data indicate that reindeer herds adopt different mobility strategies depending on the type of habitat and the topography of the environment. Thus, our project (Emorph) aims to explore morphometric criteria (through metapodial bones and phalanges) in combination with cutting-edge methodologies like Machine Learning to identify the extent of reindeer migrations. Based initially on the study of modern caribou populations with distinct migratory behaviors, the results obtained could be applied to several Magdalenian assemblages from southwestern France in the future, with the goal of reconstructing the mobility of these tardiglacial reindeer.

Cross-sectional properties of reindeer long bones and metapodials allow identification of activity patterns

Habitual loading patterns of domesticated animals may differ due to human influence from their wild counterparts. In the early stages of human-reindeer interaction, cargo and draft use was likely important, as well as corralling tame reindeer. This may result to changes in loading as increased (working) or decreased (captive) loading, as well as foraging patterns (digging for lichen from under the snow versus fed working and/or captive reindeer). Our aim is to study whether differences in activity modify variation in bone cross-sectional properties and external dimensions. Our material consists of donated skeletons of modern reindeer: 20 working reindeer (19 racing and one draft), 24 zoo reindeer, and sample of 78 free-ranging/wild reindeer as a reference group. We used general linear modelling to first establish the total variation in cross-sectional properties among wild and free-ranging reindeer, and then to infer how differences in loading modify observed variation among zoo and working reindeer. According to our results, direction of greater bone quantity as well as external dimensions in of radioulna of female reindeer differs from female reference group, likely relating to foraging behavior. External dimensions of humerus differ in working and zoo male reindeer compared to male reference group. Increased robusticity of long bones, especially of tibia among working male reindeer, may indicate increased loading, and increased cortical area of long bones may indicate sedentary lifestyle among female reindeer. The results of this study can be used to understand early stages of reindeer domestication by observing reindeer activity patterns from archaeological material.

Influence of captivity and selection on limb long bone cross-sectional morphology of reindeer.

The emergence of pastoralism and animal husbandry has been a critical point in the history of human evolution. Beyond profound behavioural changes in domesticated animals compared to wild ones, characterising the morphological changes associated with domestication process remains challenging. Because reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) can be considered to still be in the early phases of the domestication process, the study of modern populations provides a unique opportunity to examine the impact of captivity and selective breeding on skeletal changes. In this work, we investigated the morphological changes in long limb bone cross-sections using 137 wild and domestic reindeer individuals bred in free-range, in captivity or used for racing and pulling. The shape and shaft cortical thickness of the six long limb bones (i.e., humerus, radioulna, metacarpal, femur, tibia and metatarsal) were measured using a 2D-geometric morphometrics approach taking into account subspecies, sex, body mass and lifestyle differences. These bones are important to understanding functional morphological changes because they can provide information on feeding and locomotor behaviours, as well as on body propulsion and weight bearing. Apart from the effects of taxonomy, etho-ecology and sex, we have found that captivity and selection induced important variations in the size and body mass of modern reindeer. Our results also showed that patterns of variation in cortical bone thickness of long limb bone cross-sections were strongly impacted by body mass and human-imposed restrictions in roaming. This demonstrates that bone cross-sections can provide information on changes in locomotor, reproductive and feeding behaviours induced by the domestication process. These results are valuable not only for (paleo) biologists studying the impact of captivity and selection in ungulates but also for archaeologists exploring the origins of domestication and early herding strategies.

Impact of selection and domestication on hindlimb bones of modern reindeer populations: Archaeological implications for early reindeer management by Sámi in Fennoscandia

ABSTRACT For centuries, reindeer herding has been an integral part of the subsistence and culture among the Sámi of northern Fennoscandia. Despite the importance of this husbandry in their history, the timing and details of early reindeer domestication are still highly debated. Indeed, identifying domesticated individuals in the archaeological record remains complicated because reindeer are still considered to be in the early phases of the domestication process. In this work, we propose solutions for identifying domestic individuals using 3D geometric morphometrics on isolated elements from the long bones of the hindlimb in modern reindeer populations. These bones are important for understanding both the mobility of reindeer and the effect of load carrying or draught. A good level of distinction between the size and shape variables of these bones was found among subspecies, sex and lifestyles. This demonstrates that the long bones of the hindlimb can provide information on changes in locomotor behaviour induced by the domestication process, such as control and reduction of reindeer mobility by humans. This also demonstrates that analysis in geometric morphometrics is useful for exploring the use of draught reindeer in early Sámi reindeer herding and the implications for understanding reindeer domestication and early reindeer herding strategies.

Judging a reindeer by its teeth: A user-friendly tooth wear and eruption pattern recording scheme to estimate age-at-death in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus).

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) have shaped the cultures and provided livelihood to peoples of the Northern Hemisphere for thousands of years. They are still the socio‐economic cornerstone of many northern cultures. Insight into reindeer mortality patterns is important for understanding past human–reindeer interactions and reindeer population fluctuations in relation to climatic and environmental change. Beyond archaeology, assessing the age structures of modern reindeer populations is important for developing wildlife management strategies. This paper presents a quick, non‐destructive and cheap method to estimate age in reindeer in both modern and ancient populations based on tooth wear and eruption patterns of mandibular teeth. We devised the method using a large sample of Svalbard reindeer (Rangifer tarandus platyrhynchus) of known age. We blind‐tested the method and tested its applicability on another known‐age Svalbard reindeer mandible assemblage. The tests demonstrate our methods' user‐friendliness and reliability to generate reproducible, reusable datasets and accuracy in estimating reindeer age‐at‐death.

ОЛЕНЕВОДЧЕСКИЕ ХОЗЯЙСТВА В ТУГУРО-ЧУМИКАНСКОМ И АЯНО-МАЙСКОМ РАЙОНАХ ХАБАРОВСКОГО КРАЯ ВО ВТОРОЙ ПОЛОВИНЕ ХХ ВЕКА

The article considers the stages of development of reindeer breeding farms in Tuguro-Chumikansky and Ayano-Maysky districts of the Khabarovsk Territory. During several decades of the twentieth century there were serious changes in reindeer breeding: large organized enterprises grew from small private farms, and then at the end of the century they turned to small private farms again. During this time, the direction of the development of farms has been transformed from transport to productive. The presented experiences of the development of reindeer husbandry and farming practices can be taken into account when developing support programs for modern reindeer husbandry.

Technologies of Modern Reindeer

This article explores how reindeer science in Circumpolar Russia is a field of constitutions of indigenous people and animal subjectivities. It is based on empirical research of selective breeding of the Evenki breed of reindeer in the specialised Soviet literature and in the Reindeer Herding Enterprise in the village of Surinda, Evenki Municipality. Reindeer herding has historically played a significant role for the majority indigenous Evenki people. Neat classification of reindeer into distinctive breeds was completed in Soviet time, when “proper” selective breeding technologies were established. This article looks into some of the basic assumptions about animals, humans, and society that such breed classification and selection methods reveal. I analyse the role of scientific knowledge in the Soviet era to better understand why selective reindeer breeding appears more attractive to state authorities than to support indigenous reindeer husbandry, which has been experiencing a serious crisis since the early 1990s. I explain the local politics of reindeer herding and agricultural science through the contextualisation of the field case within Soviet and contemporary Russian Arctic and indigenous governance, trying to contribute to the broader issue of post-Soviet perceptions of animal husbandry, selective breeding and reindeer.

Early Modern Reindeer Husbandry, Sami Economy, and Grazing Rights

The main historic trajectory in property rights to land was the development of more exclusive rights by the dissolution of common property. In the Swedish lappmarks the opposite occurred, and by the end of the nineteenth century the old system with privately assigned land finally disappeared when Samis obtained lawful common user rights to large areas for reindeer herding. Earlier research focused on the role of the state. We bring together three previously rather neglected perspectives—self-governance, ecology, and the functionality of large-scale reindeer nomadism—to explain changes in property rights. By analysing how Samis from two types of villages in Lule lappmark using different ecological settings between 1550 and 1780, we show that the older property-rights system dissolved due to the emergence of large-scale reindeer nomadism. Grazing land became one of the most valued economic assets, and a common-property regime evolved. The institutional change that spurred the development was new trading patterns during the seventeenth century. By taking a self-governing perspective in a common-pool resource (CPR) context we identify the microlevel interactions between users through which property rights evolved in early modern Sami communities. How indigenous people during this time created and negotiated property rights is highlighted. On a higher level, the CPR perspective facilitates a discussion about Sami property rights in the context of property rights elsewhere, especially regarding common property. We emphasize the importance of addressing self-governance in the analysis of historical property rights of indigenous people.

The economy of reindeer farms in the north-west of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) in the XXI century: paternalism and independence

Reindeer husbandry today occupies an important place in the policy of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in relation to the regions of residence of the peoples of the North and also in the local municipal policy considered in the work of the Anabarsky district. The goals of the policy are to support and preserve the local culture and ensure the food security of the regions associated with reindeer herding. The reindeer breeders of Yuryung-Khaya today are building their economic strategies relying on the paternalistic policies pursued by the state, on the one hand, and actively using broader ties and entrepreneurial skills that were first demonstrated during the decline of the 1990s, on the other. In various contexts, ambivalence is manifested in the behavior of reindeer herders: alternating avoidance practices with the desire for greater autonomy and appeal to the authority of the state. Modern reindeer herders of Yuryung-Khaya to a greater or lesser extent use part of the available resources, not only to meet their primary needs, but also to improve their well-being and strengthen their household.

Determining Age and Season of Death by Use of Incremental Lines in Norwegian Reindeer Tooth Cementum

ABSTRACTUsing incremental patterns in tooth cementum is a powerful tool for age assessment. Recent developments have shown that the method has a large potential as an indicator of the season of death of the individual in question. In this paper, the results of a study comparing thin sections of teeth of the modern Hardangervidda reindeer population to those of Iron Age, eleventh, and thirteenth century reindeer hunting stations from the same area are presented. The tooth wear stages were compared to the actual age of the individual (based on the number of incremental lines and the age at eruption). It was established that in the studied reindeer populations wear stages sometimes result in too low an age estimate. Having identified the start of the period of deposition for rest lines in the modern reindeer population as early autumn and winter, analysis of the outermost layer in the tooth cementum at the archaeological sites points to a prolonged hunting season in the thirteenth century, while in the earlier phases hunters were probably present on fewer and shorter visits.

Traditional Saami reindeer herding village resource territories on the western Kola Peninsula, Russia

ABSTRACTSome Arctic scholars believe that modern reindeer herding on the Kola Peninsula has cultural continuity with the traditional period of such activity in the late 19th century. Others believe that by World War II, Soviet repression of Saami leaders, collectivisation of herding villages, and relocation of families had eliminated many traditional behaviours, especially in the Lake Imandra watershed. This study utilises informant interviews with survivors of the Babinski and Ekostrovski Saami reindeer herding villages and archival materials to understand how their families used land and water to fish, hunt, and obtain other resources including cash labour. As part of the United States National Science Foundation's human dimensions of the Arctic system (HARC) programme to examine how humans are both shaped by, and shape, the Arctic environment, the authors document how lands and waters formed traditional resource territories for Saami herding families. The results reveal that prior to their destruction, western Kola reindeer herding villages were integrated along family lines, with villages sharing mates, resource territories, and economic activities. This paper argues that there was, in fact, no cultural continuity between traditional Saami reindeer herding villages and modern herding structures such as the post-Soviet brigade on the western Kola Peninsula.

Musculoskeletal symptoms and perceived work strain among reindeer herders in Sweden

There is a shortage of knowledge on the extent of musculoskeletal symptoms in reindeer husbandry. To investigate the prevalence and relative risk for musculoskeletal symptoms and perceived psychosocial work strain among reindeer herders. The prevalence of self-reported musculoskeletal symptoms during the last week and last year, respectively, were obtained from male reindeer herders (n=74) of northern Sweden. Prevalence ratios (PRs) were calculated using two reference groups-women of reindeer-herding families (n=53) and men in blue-collar occupations (n=194). Comparisons were made of perceived job strain between the study and reference groups. Associations between job strain factors and the occurrence of musculoskeletal symptoms from different body regions were analysed with regression statistics. The PRs for musculoskeletal symptoms from the hand/wrist (PR 3.48, 95% CI 1.86-6.50) and lower back (PR 1.44, 95% CI 1.06-1.95) were significantly higher among the reindeer herders in comparison with men working with other blue-collar occupations. The reindeer herders reported significantly higher work demands and decision latitude compared with both reference groups (P<0.05). Significant associations were observed between demands and prevalence of symptoms from the lower back (OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.01-2.01) and from at least one body region (OR 1.58, 95% CI 1.07-2.32). The relative risk for musculoskeletal symptoms, particularly from the hands/wrists and lower back, was high among reindeer herders. It is suggested that musculoskeletal symptoms constitute a considerable health problem in modern reindeer husbandry, which calls for implementation of preventive measures addressing psychosocial, physical and socio-economic risk factors.

The estimation of body weight of the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.) from skeletal measurements: preliminary analyses and application to archaeological material from 17th- and 18th-century northern Finland

In this study, a variety of postcranial skeletal measurements of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.) are used to predict the body mass. Regression equations for estimating the body weight of females as well as correction factors for estimating the weight of males are generated. These are applied to archaeological reindeer bones from 17th- and 18th-century Northern Finland. Predicted weights of archaeological reindeer correspond well with the weight of modern reindeer. Sexual dimorphism, however, caused problems in this analysis, since the criteria used for sex assessment affect the body weight prediction and thus the results of inter-assemblage comparisons.

MULTIANALYTICAL STUDY OF PALAEOLITHIC REINDEER ANTLER. DISCOVERY OF ANTLER TRACES IN LASCAUX PIGMENTS BY TEM*

Palaeolithic and modern reindeer antler were analysed using complementary techniques to evaluate the conservation state of bone material. X‐ray diffraction, FT‐IR spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM–EDX) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM–EDX) as well as proton induced X‐ray and γ‐ray emission (PIXE–PIGE) at the particle accelerator AGLAE, C2RMF were applied. This study enabled us to define the chemical and structural features of ancient antler at the micro‐ and nanometre scale and compare them to those of other bone materials such as bone and ivory. Antler is richer in its organic fraction compared to bone and ivory. Its mineral fraction, carbonated hydroxylapatite, shows very specific crystal shapes at the nanometre scale. This specific property allowed us to recognize antler traces in pigment samples originating from rock art paintings in the Lascaux cave, Dordogne, southwestern France, Magdalenian period. Therefore, TEM–EDX is the technique of choice for characterizing antler traces in complex mixtures. In the paint material of Lascaux, antler seems most likely to be a pollutant introduced either by stirring the pigments in water with a piece of antler or by carving antler artefacts next to the preparation of paint material. However, it could eventually be used as a marker of paintings that were created contemporaneously.

Challenges for establishing a modern reindeer dairy industry (In Norwegian with Summary in English)

To achieve efficient milk ejection has been a recurrent problem in machine milking of reindeer does. The field season 2004 was a breakthrough for an efficient and complete milk let down in reindeer. The proportion of residual milk was reduced as lactation progressed; from around 40-50% at start of the milking in mid June to around 10-15% in late August, suggesting that habituation and training are important factors for triggering the ejection. We performed an experiment including 3 treatments; 1) Calves equipped with a "kjevle" (a wooden stick placed in the mouth of the calves making them unable to suckle but keeping their grazing ability intact) for 8 - 14 hrs dependent of lactation stage, followed by milking of the does, 2) Physically separation of the mothers and their calves for 8 - 14 hrs dependent of lactation stage, followed by milking of the does and 3) Permanent separation of females and calves at start of the milking period and females milked twice per day. The females and calves in group 1 and 2 were rejoined after the "kjevle" and separation period. The females in these two groups were milked every second day. The "kjevle" treatment apparently works better than physical separ¬ation according to welfare parameters and proportion milk ejected in the first part of the milking period. Permanent separation did also work well and permits that the whole production after separation can be utilized. However, in order to keep up the milk production frequent milkings are required during the first days of separation. The growth of the calves was high and did not differ between treatments. This suggests that the calves are able to compensate the reduced milk intake by increasing their intake of forages.

Modern reindeer and mice: revised phosphate–water isotope equations

The oxygen isotope composition of bone and tooth phosphate of 34 mice specimens ( Pitymus sp., Microtus arvalis and Arvicola terrestris) coming from seven different locations in Italy, Germany and Switzerland was measured by means of well-established techniques. These measurements were carried out with the purpose of establishing quantitative relationships between the δ 18O p from different mice genera and the mean δ 18O w values and to compare these data to previous measurements carried out on various specimens belonging to the genus Apodemus. The three genera studied showed a similar behaviour when compared to the mean δ 18O w values. The slope of the equation calculated for these three genera is significantly different from the slope obtained from Apodemus specimens. Reconsidering the δ 18O w values suggested in the case of Apodemus due to the small number of data available at that time, it seems that these values are too negative by 0.5 to about 1.5‰. If so, the Apodemus equation becomes almost identical to the equation calculated for the new mice values and, consequently, one could conclude that several micromammal genera and species might behave in the same way and obey the same relationship with the mean δ 18O w values. A set of 25 samples of modern reindeer skeletal material from Spitzbergen, Russia and Siberia was also studied with the aim of improving the reindeer isotope equation obtained from a previous study. In fact, the slope of that equation was somehow uncertain due to a rather large range of isotope values obtained from each group of reindeers coming from the same location. The new results confirm such ‘anomalous’ behaviour already shown by other mammals and probably related to dietary behaviours, water fluxes with the environment and isotopic composition of ingested food and water rather than to imperfect equilibrium conditions with environmental water. However, the equation calculated from both the old and new, statistically more significant, isotope results is not far from the previous one.

Modern reindeer dairy farming—the influence of different milking regimes on udder health, milk yield and composition

The purpose of the study was: (1) to test if the reindeer mammary gland (udder) could tolerate regular long-term machine milking, (2) to record milk yield of reindeer exposed to regular long-term machine milking and (3) to document changes in milk composition through a 3 months experimental period (July, August and September 1999). Adult female reindeer were allotted to four groups of four. Treatments were: Group 1, milked once per week, 6 h after separation of calves (control); Group 2, two milkings per day, no calves at foot; Group 3, as for Group 2 with a pre-milking oxytocin injection (i.m. 10 IE); Group 4, milked once per day, 6 h after separation of calves. Vacuum pressure was set to 25 kPa, pulse rate to 100 pulses/min with a suckling: massage ratio of 60:40. Somatic cell count (SCC), a measure of udder health, stabilized below 150,000 cells/ml in all groups, indicating that udder health was not affected by long-term regular machine milking. Average milk yield for Group 1 was 50 g/6 h, whereas a yield of 380 g per day was achieved for Group 3 (no nursing and injected with oxytocin). Milk yield of Group 3 was four-fold higher than Group 2 (90 g per day), which was milked twice daily but had no nursing and no injections of oxytocin. Separation of calves for 6 h before daily milking (Group 4) yielded 35 g. Based on the effectiveness of oxytocin, we conclude that milk letdown mechanisms are critical for effective emptying of the udder. A treatment reversal trial was conducted for a week late in the experimental period: for Group 3 mean daily milk yield when injected with saline although lower than the yield with oxytocin was greater than Group 2 which showed a 10–20% increase due to oxytocin; the 6 h mean milk yield of Group 4 when injected with oxytocin, was six-fold higher (215 g versus 35 g). We conclude that: (a) oxytocin is effective in all treatments, (b) oxytocin condition induced emptying of the mammary gland, (c) nursing contributes to maintenance of milk production, and (d) in absent of suckling or oxytocin milking twice daily with 6 and 18 h intervals is inadequate for maintaining milk secretion and may induce involution of the mammary glands. Milk dry matter content averaged about 25% (12% fat, 9% protein and 3% lactose) and increased slightly with stage of lactation, as a result of increased fat and protein concentration.

Kvinnor i modern renskötsel - Historik, status och framtid

Women in Modern Reindeer Husbandry - History, Present Status and Future. Reindeer owner Berit Marie Eira Jonsson's lecture was held in Swedish.

Uma Saami Native Harvest Data Derived from Royal Swedish Taxation Records 1557-1614

Royal tax records from 1557 to 1614 provide native harvest data for descriptive and quantitative analysis of the Saami (Lapp) reindeer hunting society in northern Sweden. The Saami made tax payments during the Scandinavian Late Middle Ages to Crown sheriffs in natural harvest products according to standardized equivalents. These natural goods were obtained in three areas of subsistence - hunting/trapping, fishing, and primitive reindeer husbandry, allowing for a graphic depiction of the economic performance of extended Saami families during this period prior to the adoption of modern reindeer herding. The native harvest, combine with enthnohistorical information, provides a model for reconstructing traditional circumpolar economies.Key words: Saami (Lapps), hunting economy, reindeer, taxation, Sweden, native harvest