Modern Carnivores Research Articles

Assessing parasite epidemiology in the epidemiological importance of Patagonian Late Holocene rockshelters using carnivore coprolites in the past: new data from Piedra Parada, Argentina.

The aim of this research was to analyse the variability of parasite assemblages on a small spatial scale, by examining carnivore coprolites from the archaeological site Campo Moncada 2 (CM2), Piedra Parada area, Chubut province, Argentina, and comparing the results with those previously obtained from the archaeological site Campo Cerda 1 (CCe1), located in the same area. Six carnivore coprolites from CM2 were analysed: 4 obtained in sub-level 2a and 2 obtained in sub-level 2a/b. Two radiocarbon dates associated with the coprolites placed the samples chronologically between 780 ± 80 and 860 ± 80 years before present. The rehydrated sediments were sieved and then allowed to sediment spontaneously. The sediment was used for parasitological examination under light microscopy. Conservative estimation of total parasite richness resulted in 21 parasitic taxa. The taxa with the highest fecal prevalence (>50%) corresponded to parasites prevalent in modern carnivores (Alaria sp., Toxocara cf. canis, Toxascaris sp., Eucoleus cf. aerophila, Trichuris sp. and Ancylostomatidae gen. sp.). Assuming that the fox coprolites are contemporaneous, the total fecal parasite richness estimated for CM2 and previously for CCe1 was similar. The high total parasite richness found suggests a network of host–parasite relationships that could include regional hunter-gatherers. The results obtained in carnivore coprolites allow us to infer a very diverse biological community in Piedra Parada area, so the regional caves and rockshelters could have a proportional epidemiological importance as parasite exchange nodes.

Stable isotope analysis of carnivores from the Turkana Basin, Kenya: Evidence for temporally-mixed fossil assemblages

Stable isotope palaeoecology of fossil mammals is a key research tool for understanding the environmental context of hominin evolution in the Plio-Pleistocene of Africa. Well studied mammal groups include bovids, suids, equids, proboscideans and primates, but to date there has been no in-depth study of modern and fossil carnivores. Here we produce an Africa-wide oxygen and carbon enamel isotope dataset for modern carnivores and compare it with fossil carnivore data sampled from the Plio-Pleistocene Omo Group of the Turkana Basin, Kenya. Comparison of modern carnivore carbon isotopes with satellite images of land cover indicates that carnivore δ13C is related to the proportion of woody cover in the local environment. Modern carnivore oxygen isotopes are strongly influenced by the δ18O of meteoric water, through drinking from standing water and through prey body fluids. Carbon isotope data from fossil carnivores shows close agreement with palaeovegetation reconstructions from δ13C of palaeosol carbonates from the same geological Members, and a similar long-term trend in δ13C values through time (4 Ma to 1 Ma), reflecting a gradual increase in the proportion of C4 grasses in the Turkana Basin. This increase in the δ13C of large carnivores is consistent with the evidence from other mammalian groups for an increase in the proportion of grazers compared to browsers and mixed feeders during this time interval. Two distinct trends within oxygen versus carbon isotope space indicates that the fossil carnivores lived during two distinct climatic regimes – one in which palaeo-lake Turkana was freshwater, and one in which the lake resembled its modern-day hyperalkaline state. These two climatic states most likely represent the end-members of precessionally-driven rainfall extremes over the Ethiopian Highlands. This indicates that each studied faunal assemblage from the Omo Group is a time- and climate-averaged palimpsest; this has significant implications for the interpretation of environmental signals and community palaeoecology derived from Turkana Basin fossil mammals, including early hominins.

Taphonomy of an excavated striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) den in Arabia: implications for paleoecology and prehistory

Studies of modern carnivore accumulations of bone (i.e., neo-taphonomy) are crucial for interpreting fossil accumulations in the archaeological and paleontological records. Yet, studies in arid regions have been limited in both number and detailed taphonomic data, prohibiting our understanding of carnivore bone-accumulating and -modifying behavior in dry regions. Here, we present a taphonomic analysis of an impressive carnivore-accumulated bone assemblage from the Umm Jirsan lava tube in the Harrat Khaybar region, Saudi Arabia. The size and composition of the bone accumulation, as well as the presence of hyena skeletal remains and coprolites, suggest that the assemblage was primarily accumulated by striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena). Our findings (1) identify potentially useful criteria for distinguishing between accumulations generated by different species of hyenas; (2) emphasize the need for neo-taphonomic studies for capturing the full variation in carnivore bone-accumulating and modifying behavior; (3) suggest that under the right settings, striped hyena accumulations can serve as good proxies for (paleo)ecology and livestock practices; and (4) highlight the potential for future research at Umm Jirsan, as well as at the numerous nearby lava tube systems. We encourage continued neo-taphonomic efforts in regions important in human prehistory, particularly in arid zones, which have received little research attention.

Paleoparasitological analysis of a coprolite assigned to a carnivoran mammal from the Upper Pleistocene Touro Passo Formation, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.

A paleoparasitological analysis was carried out on a large coprolite assigned to a carnivoran mammal, recovered from the Municipality of Uruguaiana, in the western region of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, where the Upper Pleistocene Touro Passo Formation crops out. For this, an individual sample was extracted from the specimen using an electric drill, dissociated with 10% hydrochloric acid solution, washed with distilled water, and sifted through a 500 mesh Tyler sieve. After laboratory processing, the sediment retained on the sieve was mixed with glycerin and examined by optical microscopy, which revealed the presence of 14 protozoan oocysts and three nematode eggs. The morphological characteristics of the oocysts (i.e., spherical shape, thick-walled, internal zygote apparently at the beginning of sporulation, as well as their size) and of the eggs (i.e., ovoidal shape, rounded ends, smooth surface, thin-shelled, embryo in their interior, along with their morphometry) suggest that these specimens belong respectively to the orders Eucoccidiorida and Strongylida (Family Ancylostomatidae) represented by several parasitic species of the alimentary tract of modern carnivore. This is the first record of paleoparasites discovered in a vertebrate host from the Touro Passo Formation.

Can You Hear Me Now? A Comparative Survey of Pinniped Auditory Apparatus Morphology

Over the past century research on the morphology of the auditory apparatuses of pinnipeds, which include Phocidae (true seals), Otariidae (sea lions and fur seals), and Odobenidae (walruses) is extremely limited, in comparison to other Carnivora. Although, the auditory region and surrounding basicrania are areas that are evolutionarily conservative, most literature is unclear due to mixed terminology, inaccurate information, and indistinct, outdated illustrations. Th e lack of adequate and current studies demonstrates the need for compiling morphological information of the auditory region of modern carnivores in relation to hearing. Auditory terminology will be explored to show morphological comparisons and naming practices among the carnivoran families. By streamlining accurate terminology with straightforward illustrations, the behavioral information gleaned from auditory morphological structures will be clearer even among the diverse members of Carnivora. Th is initial assessment will detail the limited information in prior research on the hearing adaptations for transitional semiaquatic carnivores. Th is preliminary review will help to establish the adaptive patterns (from land to sea) in the basicranial morphology of early pinnipeds, especially in phocids.

Molar occlusion and jaw roll in early crown mammals

Triconodontidae are considered the first carnivorous crown mammals. A virtual reconstruction of the masticatory cycle in the Late Jurassic Priacodon showed that triconodontid dental function is characterized by precise cutting on elongated crests. The combination of traits linked to both carnivorous diets (e.g. fore-aft cutting edges) and insectivorous diets (transverse crests and lobes) suggests a varied faunivorous diet appropriate to the small body size of most triconodontids. Total length of molar shear decreased with wear, suggesting a dietary shift during ontogeny. Embrasure occlusion is confirmed for P. fruitaensis as indicated by premolar positioning, facet orientation, and collision areas. Embrasure occlusion is considered a general feature of all Eutriconodonta, whereas the previously assumed Morganucodon-like pattern is limited to few early mammaliaforms. Unlike modern carnivores, significant roll of around 10° of the active hemimandible occurred during the power stroke. Roll was likely passive in Triconodontidae in contrast to active roll described for extant therians. The triconodontid molar series was highly uniform and adapted to a precise fit, with self-sharpening lower molar cusps. Whereas the uniformity ensured good cutting capabilities, it likely put the dentition under greater constraints, conserving the highly stereotyped nature of triconodontid molars for 60–85 Ma.

Diverse diets of the Mio-Pliocene carnivorans of Langebaanweg, South Africa

The Mio-Pliocene guild of carnivorans of Langebaanweg (LBW), South Africa, is phylogenetically and ecologically diverse. Unlike modern African fauna, this fossil sample contains a large ursid; although there are mustelids, herpestids and viverrids in Africa today, some of the LBW members of those families were much larger than their modern confamilials. There were also numerous felid species, including some that possess a more sabretoothed dental morphology, as well as several species of hyaenids that were very different from their modern confamilials. Questions remain about the dietary morphospace occupied by these fossils. Which taxa were predominately durophagous and which were the most hypercarnivorous? Did the level of durophagy and hypercarnivory in the LBW taxa reach the level of specialisation found in modern carnivores? In the current study, we evaluate the dietary specialisations of all the large terrestrial LBW carnivorans through analysis of the radii-of-curvature and intercuspid notches present in the mandibular dentition. We found that the LBW carnivorans had less sharp premolars than do their modern confamilials – an indication of greater durophagy. However, some families contain individuals with more extreme intercuspid notch patterns, indicating greater hypercarnivory. The ursid also possessed a suite of morphology unlike any modern carnivoran, exhibiting some morphology conducive to durophagy and some that places it functionally among the most hypercarnivorous of modern carnivorans. Thus it was likely capable of consuming high levels of both flesh and bone.

Differential predation by age and sex classes in blue wildebeest in Serengeti: study of a modern carnivore den in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania).

Age and sex selection of prey is an aspect of predator ecology which has been extensively studied in both temperate and African ecosystems. This dimension, along with fecundity, survival rates of prey and mortality factors other than predation are important in laying down the population dynamics of prey and have important implications in the management of species. A carnivore den located in the short-grassland ecological unit of the Serengeti was studied. Sex- and age- class (using five age categories) of the wildebeest remains recovered were analyzed through horn morphology, biometrics of the bones and tooth wear patterns. We compared our results with previous studies from lion and hyaena kills through multivariate analyses. Seasonality of the accumulation was analyzed through tooth histology. PCA and CVA results show that age class selection by predators depends on season, habitat-type, and growth rate of the wildebeest population. Female-biased predation was found to contradict classical hypotheses based on territorial male behaviour. The lion and spotted hyaena showed strong selection on age classes, contrary to previous studies. Migratory wildebeest sex ratio is regulated through differential predation by seasons and female deaths in the wet season are a trade-off for population stability. These data are crucial for an effective management of the species and the new method created may be useful for different carnivore species and their prey.

A GIS-based approach to documenting large canid damage to bones

Experimental studies of modern carnivore tooth marking patterns are integral to understanding the nature of carnivore involvement in archeological bone assemblages. However, modern bone damage data for most carnivore taxa are limited. This is particularly true for canids. This study presents bone damage data collected from feeding experiments conducted with Mexican Gray Wolves (Canis lupus baileyi) and Red Wolves (Canis rufus). This is the largest experimental assemblage reported for canids to date. The image-analysis GIS approach described by Marean et al. (2001) is expanded on here and used to document bone preservation and tooth mark distribution for the first time in a carnivore-modified bone assemblage. Further, we introduce the use of the ArcGIS Spatial Analyst to identify significant concentrations of bone modifications. Results show that the distribution of tooth pits varies considerably across elements as well as across different portions of the same element, and that significant clusters of tooth pits occur on all long bones. We suggest that with a large enough sample, the GIS Spatial Analyst can be a useful tool for analyzing the distribution of bone modifications with greater resolution than previous methods. This method facilitates comparisons between experimental and fossil assemblages which may aid in identifying the timing of access to carcasses by carnivores involved in modifying fossil assemblages. Finally, the use of this rigorous methodology is a step toward increasing standardization in methods of taphonomic analysis.

First palaeoparasitological record of a dioctophymatid egg in an archaeological sample from Patagonia

The collection of parasitological information from ancient material requires an exhaustive study of samples. In 2005, cestode and nematode eggs were found in a coprolite sample tentatively assigned to a canid. The sample was obtained from the layer of the archaeological site located in Cerro Casa de Piedra, Santa Cruz Province, Argentina, and dated from 6540±110 years before present. The aim of the present work was to reexamine this fixed sample in order to confirm the presence of these parasites. The palaeoparasitological results support our previous findings. Interestingly, another parasite was also confirmed: a dioctophymatid nematode. Dioctophyma renale has been reported in several modern carnivores in the Southern Hemisphere but in ancient materials, it has only been reported in human coprolites from Switzerland. This report constitutes the first evidence of the presence of a dioctophymatid nematode parasite dioctophymatid nematode in American pre-Columbian times. The results obtained in this work show the importance of revising earlier palaeoparasitological results.

Taphonomy of ungulate ribs and the consumption of meat and bone by 1.2-million-year-old hominins at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

The phenomenon of equifinality complicates behavioral interpretations of faunal assemblages from contexts in which Pleistocene hominins are suspected bone accumulators. Stone tool butchery marks on ungulate fossils are diagnostic of hominin activities, but debate continues over the higher-order implications of butchered bones for the foraging capabilities of hominins. Additionally, tooth marks imparted on bones by hominins overlap in morphology and dimensions with those created by some non-hominin carnivores, further confounding our view of early hominins as meat-eating hunters, scavengers or both. We report on the manual/oral peeling of cortical layers of ungulate ribs as taphonomically diagnostic of hominoid/hominin meat- and bone-eating behavior that indicates access to large herbivore carcasses by hominins at the site of BK, Olduvai. Supporting these inferences, we show that certain types of rib peeling damage are very rare or completely unknown in faunas created by modern carnivores and African porcupines, but common in faunas modified by the butchery and/or consumption activities of modern humans and chimpanzees, during which these hominoids often grasp ribs with their hands, and then used their teeth to peel strips of cortex from raggedly chewed ends of the ribs. Carnivores consume ungulate ribcage tissues soon after kills, so diagnostic traces of hominin butchery/consumption on ribs (i.e., peeling and butchery marks) indicate early access to ungulate carcasses by BK hominins. Tooth marks associated with the peeling and butchery marks are probably hominin-derived, and may indicate that it was not uncommon for our ancestors to use their teeth to strip meat from and to consume portions of ribs. Recognition of rib peeling as a diagnostic signature of hominoid/hominin behavior may also aid the search for pre-archaeological traces of hominin meat-eating.

Diverse tooth marks on an adult sauropod bone from the Early Cretaceous, Korea: Implications in feeding behaviour of theropod dinosaurs

Although carnivorous dinosaurs probably engaged in both predation and scavenging, it has been suggested that the tyrannosaurids were uniquely scavengers. The fossil record of bone damage resulting from predation by carnivorous theropod dinosaurs is sparse, and it is often difficult to determine whether tooth-marks were produced through predation or scavenging. In this study unusual tooth-marks on a caudal vertebra of an adult sauropod from the Lower Cretaceous Hasandong Formation, Korea, which are the deepest and longest scores ever documented, are described. In addition to these tooth-marks, small tooth-strike lesions, including shallow gouges and divots, are present on the same bone. These tooth-marks provide insight into the feeding behaviour of dinosaurs that scavenged the bodies of large, adult dinosaurs. The presence of both large and small tooth-marks on a single bone suggests that theropods of different sizes or kinds exploited the same adult sauropod carcass to deflesh it and/or to obtain bone nutrients, in a manner identical to that of modern carnivores.

The giant hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris: Modelling the bone-cracking behavior of an extinct carnivore

The giant hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris was the largest bone-cracking carnivore that ever existed. With the mass of a lioness, it had massive limbs with shortened distal bones and a heavy, powerfully built mandible with robust, well-developed premolars. All these features reflect its adaptation for dismembering ungulate carcasses, transporting large pieces of them without dragging to the denning site and fracturing bones. This paper estimates the relative contribution of hunting and scavenging to the diet of this extinct hyena, using a combined biomechanical and taphonomic approach. Analysis of the bone-cracking behavior of P. brevirostris was based on the abundance of skeletal elements in the large mammals assemblage from Venta Micena (Guadix-Baza basin, southeast Spain), a locality currently interpreted as an early Pleistocene hyena den. The distribution of major limb bones of ungulates among complete elements, isolated epiphyses and diaphyses were analyzed using contingency tables and correspondence analysis. Results obtained showed that the bones with greater marrow contents (femur, humerus and tibia) were preferentially fractured by the hyenas, while those others with less nutritional value (radius and metapodials) were better represented as complete elements in the assemblage. The quantitative analysis of the preservational state of skeletal elements allowed testing specific patterns of bone modification by the giant hyenas, such as a proximodistal sequence of consumption for humerus and tibia, thus revealing the highly specialized bone-cracking behavior of P. brevirostris. Regression equations adjusted with modern carnivores for body size on craniodental and postcranial measurements provide an average estimate of mass of ∼110 kg for the giant hyena. The high moment arms for masseter and temporalis muscles indicate a substantial strength for bone fracturing with the well-developed premolar teeth. Jaw depth provided resistance against dorsoventral loads during bone-cracking activities. However, the moment arm of resistance for an object positioned at the canines reveals a loss of bite strength compared with spotted hyenas and thus less predatory abilities. These results are in agreement with the scavenging niche deduced for P. brevirostris from taphonomic analysis.

Dental microwear of cave bears: The missing temperate/boreal vegetarian “carnivore”

Peigne et al. (1) infer from dental microwear analysis of cave bears from Goyet, Belgium, that these bears had an omnivorous diet, at least before entering dormancy. This deduction is based on a comparison with a set of modern carnivores with different diets. However, the taxa chosen as reference may have biased the conclusions. Indeed, the chosen herbivorous bears are specialized and do not consume the possible food likely available to cave bears. Panda bears are specialized bamboo eaters and spectacled bears consume essentially fruits and arboreal plant parts (2). In contrast, the vegetal part of the diet of temperate and boreal bears (brown bears and American black bears) is mostly composed of grass, nuts, berries, and underground plant parts (2). Because the microwear study did not include members of these two species in the comparison, it is still unclear how such plant diets would impact the dental microwear pattern. The low 15N content of western European cave bear collagen points to a strongly vegetarian diet in contrast with that of coveal brown bears that exhibit isotopic signatures similar to those of pure carnivores (3, 4). However, the exact composition of this plant food and the possible seasonal and geographical variations in the diet of cave bears are yet to be determined. The dental microwear approach has a great potential to help resolve the riddle of cave bear diet, but it needs to be properly calibrated with reference bear samples with vegetarian diets from temperate and boreal environments.

A semi-aquatic Arctic mammalian carnivore from the Miocene epoch and origin of Pinnipedia

Modern pinnipeds (seals, sea lions and the walrus) are semi-aquatic, generally marine carnivores the limbs of which have been modified into flippers. Recent phylogenetic studies using morphological and molecular evidence support pinniped monophyly, and suggest a sister relationship with ursoids (for example bears) or musteloids (the clade that includes skunks, badgers, weasels and otters). Although the position of pinnipeds within modern carnivores appears moderately well resolved, fossil evidence of the morphological steps leading from a terrestrial ancestor to the modern marine forms has been weak or contentious. The earliest well-represented fossil pinniped is Enaliarctos, a marine form with flippers, which had appeared on the northwestern shores of North America by the early Miocene epoch. Here we report the discovery of a nearly complete skeleton of a new semi-aquatic carnivore from an early Miocene lake deposit in Nunavut, Canada, that represents a morphological link in early pinniped evolution. The new taxon retains a long tail and the proportions of its fore- and hindlimbs are more similar to those of modern terrestrial carnivores than to modern pinnipeds. Morphological traits indicative of semi-aquatic adaptation include a forelimb with a prominent deltopectoral ridge on the humerus, a posterodorsally expanded scapula, a pelvis with relatively short ilium, a shortened femur and flattened phalanges, suggestive of webbing. The new fossil shows evidence of pinniped affinities and similarities to the early Oligocene Amphicticeps from Asia and the late Oligocene and Miocene Potamotherium from Europe. The discovery suggests that the evolution of pinnipeds included a freshwater transitional phase, and may support the hypothesis that the Arctic was an early centre of pinniped evolution.

Large mammal guilds at the time of the first human colonization of Europe: The case of the Italian Pleistocene record

The climatic events of the Pleistocene affected the physical and/or biotic environment and are reflected by changes in the fauna and flora richness and diversity. This strongly influenced the earliest human peopling—or lack of it—all over the middle latitudes of Eurasia, including Italy, on which focuses our analysis. Faunal turnovers, both at the Plio/Pleistocene boundary, and later on, between ca. 1 and 0.6 Ma, influenced human dispersal. There is so far no evidence in Italy of any colonization before 1 Ma, when mighty predators such as Pachycrocuta brevirostris and Lycaon falconeri were active, and a sparse and controversial archaeological record from 1 to 0.65 Ma. We suggest that a favourable temporal window opened during the early Middle Pleistocene, when the renovated Galerian faunas were characterized by few large predators, and by increasing numbers of middle-sized herbivores. Furthermore, biomass was possibly higher. After 0.65 Ma, the archaeological record of Italy includes well-dated sites, which yielded ample evidence of human activity. After palaeontological and archaeological evidence, starting from the early Middle Pleistocene, human groups successfully competed with modern carnivores, possibly occupying a niche that only partially overlapped with that of other predators.

Variation and covariation of skulls and teeth: modern carnivores and the interpretation of fossil mammals

Teeth are generally the best-preserved elements among mammal fossil remains and are highly diagnostic characters. Consequently, much mammalian paleontological, systematic, and evolutionary research focuses on teeth, so it is important to understand how they vary and covary with other characters. Dental traits within populations of carnivores appear to be more variable than cranial traits, a pattern that results only partly from their usually smaller size. Furthermore, dental traits, although highly correlated with one another, are not highly correlated with cranial traits, which are also highly correlated with one another. Thus, teeth and cranial bones may be subject to quite different selective pressures and genetic/developmental constraints and may suggest different microevolutionary scenarios. Vestigial teeth show significantly greater variability than expected, reflecting the absence of stabilizing selection.

Exploring the health of late Pleistocene mammals: the use of Harris lines

ABSTRACT Harris lines are osteological markers of recovery from an episode of growth arrest that have been utilized primarily to track fluctuations in the health of prehistoric human communities. The transverse lines are visible in radiographs of long bones and should be visible in well-preserved fossil material. Here, we test their utility for non-hominid fossils in an analysis of late Pleistocene mammals from the extensive collections of the Rancho La Brea tar seeps. The species examined include dire wolf (Canis dims), coyote (C. latrans), sabertooth cat (Smilodon fatalis), bison (Bison antiquus), camel (Camelops hesternus), and horse (Equus laurentius). The tar pits range in age from about 33,000 years ago to near the time of last appearance of all these species but the coyote, about 11,000 years ago. The frequency of Harris lines in the bones of the fossil mammals ranged from less than one percent to nearly seven percent. These frequencies were compared with those found in samples of presumed healthy and possibly food-stressed populations of modern mammalian herbivores and carnivores. Harris line frequencies in the Pleistocene mammals did not differ significantly from those of the presumed healthy modern populations but were significantly lower than that of one of the possibly stressed populations, the highly endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi). This suggests that the late Pleistocene species were not suffering from unusual levels of poor health, even as they approached the extinction horizon. This study of Harris line incidence in both modern and fossil mammal populations demonstrates their utility for future studies of paleofaunas.

Locomotor behaviour in Plio‐Pleistocene sabre‐tooth cats: a biomechanical analysis

The locomotor behaviour of some large extinct carnivores, including several species of Plio‐Pleistocene sabre‐tooth cats, is here reconstructed, based on a comparison of the cross‐sectional geometric properties and linear dimensions of their femora and humeri with those of large modern carnivores. The long bones are modelled as simple beams, thereby allowing the use of basic beam theory in assessing relevant functional parameters such as second moments of area of the diaphyses when subjected to compressive and bending stresses. Three Pleistocene carnivores, Smilodon fatalis, Homotherium serum, and Panthera atrox seem to have had ecological and functional equivalents among the late Miocene‐Early Pliocene genera, Barbourofelis, Machairodus, and Nimravides, respectively. Barbourofelis and Smilodon were ‘cat‐like’in dental morphology but some structural characteristics of their limb bones had ‘bear‐like’affinities. Machairodus and Homotherium were cursorial, whereas Nimravides and P. atrox display the limb morphology of true ambush predators. Various aspects of the postcranial skeleton of some of these extinct carnivores suggest that they may have employed locomotory gaits that lack modern analogs.

The Origin of Partially Digested Bones Recovered from Archaeological Contexts in Israel

The identification, distribution and origin of partially digested bones in archaeological sites from Israel is discussed. Such finds have been cited by researchers as indicating the presence of domesticated dogs at a site. However, evidence is presented here to show that other, non-domestic carnivores may be responsible. This is based both on studies of partially digested bones from modern carnivore bone assemblages and on the presence of such bones in prehistoric deposits pre-dating the domestication of the dog.