Modern Agricultural Technology Research Articles

Silver-enhanced lateral flow immunoassay for highly-sensitive detection of potato leafroll virus

ABSTRACT Rapid non-laboratory screening of plants for pathogenic viruses crucially influences crop yields in modern agricultural technologies. The aim of this study was to develop a highly-sensitive lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) for rapid detection of potato leafroll virus (PLRV), an infectious agent of one of the most widespread potato diseases. The proposed LFIA combines the formation of sandwich immune complexes with gold nanoparticles (GNP) as labels and silver enhancement. The enhancement stage was realized using mixture of silver lactate and hydroquinone and subsequent addition of chloride-containing buffer to stop silver reduction. LFIA with silver enhancement was 15 times more sensitive (detection limit 0.2 ng/mL; 15 min) compared with conventional LFIA (detection limit 3 ng/mL; 10 min). The enhanced LFIA detected PLRV in leaves’ extracts of infected potato in dilutions higher than enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

Scientific and Technological Envoys of University—A New Model of Modern Agricultural Extension and Technology Transfer

The operation mode of the system of scientific and technological envoys(STE) has developed gradually in the past few years in agriculture, in order to adapt to demand of agriculture and farmers in different areas, the mode has been converted from simple interactive to comprehensive development mode that are multitudinousness and more elements participation. The study focused on innovation mode and operation mechanism of STE in modern agricultural and technology extension in recent years, which covered practical and theoretical study, the results will provide more references for the further development of science and technology correspondent system.

Too many bad seeds

Technology Adoption Low usage rates of modern agricultural technology in sub-Saharan Africa may reflect poor quality of the tools, which provide little incentive for farmers to adopt them. Studying maize cultivation in Uganda, Bold et al. found through laboratory testing that 30% of nutrient was missing in common urea fertilizer and that common hybrid seed contained less than 50% authentic seeds. Based on agricultural field trials, those low-quality inputs provided a net return on investment close to 0%, compared with 80% for higher-quality inputs. But surveys suggest that farmers are also unable to adequately discern higher-quality inputs, limiting incentives for fertilizer and seed sellers to invest in providing such products. Quart. J. Econ. 10.1093/qje/qjx009 (2017).

Multiple Cropping after the Rice Harvest in Rainfed Rice Cropping Systems in Khon Kaen Province, Northeast Thailand

(ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.)IntroductionIn rainfed rice fields in Northeast Thailand, only a single crop of rice is commonly planted in the rainy season. Moreover, the yield of rice is generally low, averaging 1.7 t/ha. The low productivity coupled with low and fluctuating prices and high input costs severely limits the profitability of rice production and keeps many farmers trapped in poverty. Cropping intensification through multiple cropping could be a way to increase productivity and boost rural incomes.In the past, multiple cropping was rarely practiced in Northeast Thailand due to the limited biophysical resources (e.g., low and erratic rainfall, infertile sandy soils, limited availability of surface water supplies, serious problem of insect pests, long duration of the rice crop) (Terd et al. 1976a; 1976b; 1978a; 1978b; Aran et al. 1977a; 1977b; 1977c; KKU-Ford Cropping System Project 1982; Rambo 1991; Viriya 2001). Even when experimental multiple cropping systems were agronomically successful, farmers did not adopt them (Vichain and Aran 1990), mostly due to social and economic constraints, including limited markets for crops, labor competition, and lack of capital and knowledge (Rigg 1985; Vichain and Aran 1990). Although the factors limiting the adoption of multiple cropping were well understood in the context of rainfed agriculture in the 1980s, the situation in the Northeast has undergone rapid change since then. The context for multiple cropping is now quite different from what it was in the past. Key changes include the widespread adoption of the drought-tolerant RD6 glutinous rice variety and use of diesel pumps to provide supplementary irrigation water from newly dug farm ponds, which have helped to stabilize rice yields in years of low rainfall. The resulting higher and more stable yields of glutinous rice have allowed farmers to plant a larger share of their land with non-glutinous KDML105, which is raised as a cash crop, providing rural households with a new source of income. Agricultural intensification is occurring to an extent unimaginable just a few years ago. Relying on remittances sent back to their families by migrant workers, as well as cash earned by engaging in off-farm employment in new factories and service jobs in local urban centers, Isan farmers have been rapidly adopting modern agricultural technology, including increased use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery (Grandstaff et al. 2008). Multiple cropping and cultivation of high-value crops to supply growing urban markets are also more commonly practiced (Rambo 2012).In Khon Kaen Province, farmers now employ a variety of locally developed double cropping systems to grow cash crops after the rice harvest and thus raise farm incomes. Some farmers grow high-value vegetable crops after the rice harvest, such as Chinese radish (Patcharaporn and Orawan 2011), tomato for seed production (Prapatsorn and Wareerat 2010), glutinous corn (Uraiwan et al. 2010), and various green vegetables, which provided a net income of USD7,727-12,733 per hectare per season. Even though some examples of multiple cropping after rice have been reported, there have been no detailed studies on the localities, planted areas, types of crops, and number of households adopting these systems; nor has there been any detailed analysis of the factors associated with the occurrence of each system of multiple cropping. This research, therefore, was undertaken in order to identify localities, planted areas, types of crops, and number of households growing crops after the harvest of rainfed rice in Khon Kaen Province and to identify physical, social, and economic factors associated with the occurrence of these cropping systems.MethodologyStudy AreaThe study area was the whole of Khon Kaen Province, Northeast Thailand. It is located between latitude 15°40' to 17°5'N and longitude 101°45' to 103°45'E. …

Modified system of rice intensification for higher crop and water productivity in Meghalaya, India: opportunities for improving livelihoods for resource-poor farmers

The productivity and water-use efficiency of traditional rice (Oryza sativa)-based cropping systems in northeastern hill region of India is low and needs to be revisited for improving food security and mitigating the impact of climate change. The adoption of modern agricultural technologies is a necessity for upliftment of agricultural productivity and livelihood of the farming households. Therefore, a modified system of rice intensification (MSRI) was demonstrated in participatory mode during 2010–2012 in 16 farmers’ field of Meghalaya, India, to increase cropping intensity, yield, water productivity (WP) and improve livelihood. The 20-day-old seedlings of improved rice variety ‘Shahsarang-1’ were transplanted at 20 cm × 20 cm spacing with two seedlings hill−1 under MSRI as against 30-days-old seedlings transplanted randomly using 4–5 seedlings hill−1 under farmers’ practice (FP). The average rice productivity under MSRI was enhanced by 39% than that under FP. The employment and net returns were enhanced by 15 and 61% over FP, respectively. Adoption of MSRI also increased water-use efficiency by 12% and WP by 59% compared to FP. The rice crop under MSRI matured 15 days earlier than that under FP. Thus, adoption of MSRI facilitated growing of vegetable pea (Pisum sativum) with average productivity of 4.2 t ha−1 after rice which doubled the cropping intensity and increased farmers’ income. In addition, the available nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and organic carbon content of soils under rice (MSRI)-pea cropping system were also increased by 7.5, 5.2, 3.4 and 4.3% over antecedent level after 2 years. Hence, MSRI is recommended for enhancing rice productivity, sustaining soil fertility and income of hill farmers in studied ecosystem.

New frontiers of land and water commodification: socio‐environmental controversies of large‐scale land acquisitions

AbstractA growing number of regions in the developing world are targeted by transnational investors who are acquiring large amounts of land and natural resources. Driven by the increasing global demand for agricultural products, such investments are often considered an opportunity for economic development in the target country. However, there are concerns about the social and environmental impacts on local communities. In this brief review, we discuss some key socio‐environmental controversies surrounding large‐scale land acquisitions (LSLAs). LSLAs often target common property systems and lead to privatization and commodification of land through long‐term land concessions. There is a debate between supporters of foreign land investments as a means to attract modern agricultural technology that would decrease the yield gap in underperforming agricultural land and those who question such a development model because it is seldom coupled with policy instruments that would ensure that the benefits improve food security in local populations. Large‐scale land investments displace a variety of systems of production ranging from small‐scale farming to (arguably) “unused” land such as forests and savannas on which local communities often depend. Moreover, LSLAs entail an appropriation of water resources that may negatively impact local farmers or downstream human and natural systems. In most cases, investors keep the land fallow but, when they put it under productive use, they typically change land cover and land use to start intensified commercial farming, often for nonfood crops. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Agriculture and Structural Transformation in Africa: An Overview

Agriculture is the mainstay of most African economies and economic performance in these countries is intricately linked to the performance of the agricultural sector. Indeed, in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the majority of the population resides in rural areas and the majority of farmers (up to 80%) are smallholders. However, productivity of these smallholder farmers is low compared to other developing regions, and this has perpetuated poverty in rural Africa. Agriculture has the greatest potential to reduce poverty in rural Africa. This special issue looks at efforts to transform agriculture in rural SSA to not only raise incomes of farmers, but to also foster broader structural transformation of African economies. The focus is on what needs to be done from a policy and practical point of view to kick-start, and in some cases, entrench structural transformation of the agricultural sector, taking cognizance of the need to transform across the value chain. Commitment by African governments, through initiatives such as the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme, is a starting point. Over and above this, there is need to better understand why smallholder farmers are reluctant to invest in modern agricultural technologies, including use of modern seeds and fertilisers. Further, there are several constraints to be overcome for structural transformation of African agriculture to be a reality. These include: investing in development and diffusion of new and appropriate agricultural technologies; investing in infrastructure, including irrigation; addressing post-harvest challenges that small holder farmers face, etc. To better entrench the impacts, structural transformation in agriculture should happen concurrently with structural transformation of the rest of the economy, thus allowing for better allocation of scarce resources throughout the economy.

Pathways Less Explored—Locus of Control and Technology Adoption

Many African countries strive to achieve widespread agricultural productivity growth by encouraging their farmers to adopt relevant modern technologies. The use of such technologies as well as land and labour productivity are rising as a consequence. Nonetheless, both have to increase much faster to meet growing food and non-food demands in part through the further expansion of modern input use. This paper explores the role of individuals’ locus of control as a potential complementary avenue to promote the adoption of such technologies. Using data from several large surveys in rural Ethiopia, it first measure locus of control and find evidence of ‘external’ locus of control among a substantial fraction of rural households. An ordered-choice framework is subsequently employed to estimate these households’ propensity of technology adoption. The empirical specification extends the standard model by explicitly including locus of control measures. Associations between modern inputs use and factors conventionally deemed important (such as access to extension, household wealth and agro-ecology) are uncovered. Moreover, the results provide strongly suggestive evidence that lower internal and higher ‘external’ locus of control respectively dampen the propensity to adopt modern farming technology. These new findings indicate that locus of control and related psychological traits may serve as a complementary pathway to influence farmers’ choices in production technology and beyond.

The emerging quiet revolution in Myanmar's aquaculture value chain

Myanmar is among the world's leading aquaculture producers. But less is known about its fish farm sector than any other major aquaculture-producing country in Asia. The literature has characterized aquaculture in Myanmar as strongly export oriented, and dominated by very large farms. Past literature had it that small-scale fish farms were almost non-existent due to land use regulations that were thought to have blocked the conversion of paddy land to ponds. The past literature had it that technologies of the big farms were ‘traditional’ and extensive. We tested the conventional wisdoms, treating them as hypotheses; we did so by undertaking the largest (and first survey-based) aquaculture value chain study ever conducted in Myanmar. Our findings are as follows. 1) The great majority of farmed fish produced in Myanmar is sold to the fast growing domestic market; only a small share is exported. 2) Although large fish farms dominate in terms of total pond area, a small/medium farm segment has emerged quickly. This has given rise to a “dualistic” fish farm sector, with many small/medium farmers and nurseries alongside large farms. 3) The take-off of small/medium farms has been helped by the “informal relaxation” of restrictions prohibiting the conversion of paddy land to ponds in the main fish farming zones. 4) The upstream segments (feed and seed) of the supply chain have grown fast as have the midstream segments (wholesale and logistics). Most of this growth is due to a “Quiet Revolution” driven by private investments of small and medium enterprises (SMEs). 5) Some farms (small as well as large) are intensifying their technologies, resulting in adoption of a mix of traditional more modern farm technologies.

Intermediate Technology for Food Security and Sustainable Development in the Central Rain Lands of Sudan: The Need and Justification

Animal traction technology has been introduced by various rural development projects in different areas of the Sudan, as an alternative to the purely traditional, and modern agricultural technologies. The idea is aimed at introducing simple, efficient, and appropriate agricultural techniques to increase agricultural productivity and the cultivated area, as well as to promote off-farm activities in the rural areas. It is clearly noticed that the rural development projects based on animal traction in Western Sudan has achieved considerable socio-economic and environmental impacts there. These consequences range from upgrading of traditional agricultural hand tools, increasing the cultivated area to productivity per feddan, improving of local skills, and provision of jobs for some marginal groups such as black smiths, landless groups, and others.

English

Kenya has increasingly relied on modern agricultural technology to increase productivity since land extensification is no longer a feasible option to satisfy national food demands. Hybrid maize varieties have been one of the more successful technologies developed, responsible for dramatic yield increases in the developed world since World War II and more recently as an integral part of the Green Revolution. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the factors that affect the adoption of hybrid maize varieties in Kenya. A household survey was conducted to collect data on demographic and socioeconomic factors, as well as to elicit farmers’ perceptions of the agronomic and consumption benefits of hybrid maize compared to open pollinated varieties. Using econometric (discrete choice) models, results showed that farmers’ perceive that hybrid maize provides significant benefits in obtaining higher yields, but are less effective protecting against drought. Several other demographic and socioeconomic variables also had positive effects on hybrid maize adoption including access to modern farm equipment, distance to market, age, gender, education level and occupation of the household head. As Kenya and other African countries look to biotechnology as a means to increase productivity, the seed industry will need to continue finding ways to develop genetically modified maize to improve drought protection.   Key words: Hybrid maize, adoption, open pollinated variety, farmer’s preference, Kenya.

The productive potential of the land and its assessment principles in Ukraine

Getting the maximum economic effect on agricultural lands without environmental performance needs to restore these areas. The main objective of optimum utilization of land resources is a process of territorial organization, in which the need to apply the most effective option to use the whole complex of land resources for the greatest productive potential of agricultural land. The concept of "productive potential" is considered as the combination of characteristics of land and natural conditions, shaped by human society, and determine the nature of the rational use of land in the area of expanded reproduction. In general terms the maximum opportunity in the economy. The productive potential of land is not a sustainable figure. During the agricultural use of the land productive potential is constantly changing due to the gradual improvement or reduction of logistics, soil fertility and obtaining agricultural products. The productive capacity of agricultural land is proposed to assess the following indicators: a qualitative characterization of soils and agricultural technologies. These indicators are as diverse comparative calculation to be posted in stages. First of all, draws attention to the qualitative characteristics of the soil, which is the basis for growing crops. Data on basic indicators of soil to be correct and complex to define parameters of soil and expressed through generalized estimation of fertility. These figures are in agrochemical passport fields. The final calculation serves agrochemical and environmental agrochemical evaluation, filed in points. Modern agricultural technologies is a complex process operations management processes productive crops in artificial ecosystems to achieve the forecasted yields and product quality while ensuring environmental safety and some economic efficiency. Number of applied agricultural technologies depends on the complexity of environmental conditions and the level of planned productivity. The more intense agricultural technologies, especially natural factors must be considered. To improve performance and improvement of production in agriculture advanced countries in the world use precision agriculture. When used precision agriculture systems plant receives the amount of substances which it needs. By fertilizing spot, where they are needed, minimized costs of acquisition Equally important set of measures aimed at improving the natural environment is reclamation. Thanks to the introduction of more productive land reclamation, increasing their resistance to adverse climatic conditions and creates an environment that best meets the requirements that are in agriculture. Bet the use of productive potential site is reduced to an objective assessment of the environmental and economic interests and study the most effective ways to implement them. Prevention of the costs of restoring soil quality and further increase the full net production effects that positively influence the formation of the productive potential of agricultural land. Key words: productive capacity, soil fertility, agricultural technologies, forecasting

Inequality and Determinants of Income among Rural Households in Tribal Dominated Areas of Jharkhand

The study was undertaken to analyse the extent, diversity, inequality and determinants of income of rural households in Jharkhand-one of the most poverty stricken state of India. The study is based on the high frequency primary data collected from 160 rural households by resident investigators under the ICAR-ICRISAT collaborative project on “Tracking Changes in Rural Poverty in Household and Village Economies in South Asia”. Both descriptive and quantitative methodologies were used to analyse the above issues. Tabular analysis was used to assess the level of income among different categories of rural households. While Herfindahl-Hirschman Index was used to assess the diversity of income sources, income inequality was measured by Ginni Ratio and Lorenz curve. Further, the linear regression model was used to identify the determinants of income of rural households in tribal dominated areas of the state. The study depicted a wide variation in the level of income among different categories of households with high and pervasive income inequality among them. Though the income inequality did not exhibit a consistent relationship with farm size, the extent of inequality was found highest among labour households. Education, adoption of high yielding varieties and access to non-farm income opportunities emerged as the significant determinants of income. These findings explicitly call for sustained efforts to create rural non-farm employment opportunities, promote adoption of modern agricultural technologies and enhance education among rural households in the study area.

Inequality and determinants of income among rural households in tribal dominated areas of Jharkhand

The study was undertaken to analyse the extent, diversity, inequality and determinants of income of rural households in Jharkhand-one of the most poverty stricken state of India. The study is based on the high frequency primary data collected from 160 rural households by resident investigators under the ICAR-ICRISAT collaborative project on “Tracking Changes in Rural Poverty in Household and Village Economies in South Asia”. Both descriptive and quantitative methodologies were used to analyse the above issues. Tabular analysis was used to assess the level of income among different categories of rural households. While Herfindahl-Hirschman Index was used to assess the diversity of income sources, income inequality was measured by Ginni Ratio and Lorenz curve. Further, the linear regression model was used to identify the determinants of income of rural households in tribal dominated areas of the state. The study depicted a wide variation in the level of income among different categories of households with high and pervasive income inequality among them. Though the income inequality did not exhibit a consistent relationship with farm size, the extent of inequality was found highest among labour households. Education, adoption of high yielding varieties and access to non-farm income opportunities emerged as the significant determinants of income. These findings explicitly call for sustained efforts to create rural non-farm employment opportunities, promote adoption of modern agricultural technologies and enhance education among rural households in the study area.

A Generalized Measure of Diversity: Application to Longitudinal Data on Crop-groups in North-East India

In this paper, we generalize the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI) using the correlation structure of the individual shares to arrive at a new diversity measure. This is then applied to the cultivation of crops across zones of Assam, India. Before applying these indices we have removed the trend component from the data series. Since the trend effect is eliminated, the indices show the true diversity pattern and reflect the intentions of farmers directly which was not taken into consideration in the earlier measures. The results show that the diversity indices declined till 1975-76 and then gradually increased up to 1987-88. Thereafter, all the indices became more or less stagnant. It may be because the farmers did not want to take risk or they have less access to the modern farming technology which is also subject to changes over time.

A Framework for Determining the Impact of Value Chain Participation on Smallholder Farm Efficiency

We analyze the efficiency of wheat farmers toward the ever-increasing demand for wheat in Tanzania. Translog production and cost functions were utilized in the stochastic frontier analysis to examine technical, allocative, and economic efficiencies (TE, AE, and EE) of wheat farmers in Northern Tanzania. Propensity score matching through caliper radius and nearest neighbor methods were utilized to analyze the impact of value chain participation on smallholder farm efficiency levels. Analysis revealed that the average TE, AE, and EE scores for farmers’ value chain participation were 79%, 80%, and 64%, respectively, in the study area, implying that wheat farmers could still improve level of TE, AE, and EE by 21%, 20%, and 36%, respectively. Caliper radius matching revealed that the net effects of farmers’ participation in vertical coordination on TE, AE, and EE were 6.8%, 5.7%, and 8.7%, respectively, while the net effects of farmers’ horizontal coordination participation were 6.3%, 9.5%, and 11.6%, respectively. This indicates that farmer’s participation in value chain (vertical and horizontal coordination) would positively impact their level of wheat farm efficiencies. Based on the results, we recommend the expansion of wheat plots and use of modern farming technologies to increase wheat production in Tanzania. To further improve farm unit efficiency, we recommend additional formal education for future farmers, more on-farm extension training, and participation in the value chain through contracts and farmers’ associations.

Agricultural Science and Organic Farming: Time to Change Our Trajectory

Core Ideas Organic farming bans nearly all synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Research shows that these materials can be the best solution to specific problems. Agricultural science has incrementally embraced organic farming. Mingling ideology and science compromises science and misleads the public. Agricultural science should change its trajectory with regard to organic farming. Organic farming bans all rates and uses of nearly every synthetic fertilizer and pesticide. This comprehensive ban ignores the range of differences in these materials, from dangerous to benign, and ignores research showing that specific uses and rates of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides can be the best solution to specific agricultural problems. Although organic farming emphasizes beneficial practices like crop rotation and application of manure and compost, it is this ideological ban that defines a farm as “organic.” Despite this rigid rejection of some parts of modern farm technology, organic farming has been incrementally embraced by agricultural science, influencing research, education, and outreach. Mingling ideology and science compromises science, misleads the public, and hinders efforts to sustain agriculture. It is time to review our relationship as agricultural scientists to organic farming and change the current trajectory.

Rice Ecosystems and Adoption of Modern Rice Varieties in Odisha, East India: Intensity, Determinants and Policy Implications

Odisha is one of the major rice producing states of the eastern region of India. But, the adoption of modern agricultural technologies like modern varieties (MVs) of paddy is still low and skewed across regions and farmer groups in the state even after five decades of inception of green revolution in India. The state has two distinct ecosystems because out of 6.5 million hectares of gross cropped area of the state, 49% is still rainfed and 51% is irrigated. The patterns of adoption of MVs of rice and constraints in adoption process differ in both ecosystems. On this background, the present paper tries to analyze the intensity of adoption of MVs of rice and its determinants in irrigated and rainfed rice ecosystems of the state. The study is based on the primary data at the household level collected by a multistage purposive sampling method. The sample included 300 farm households from six villages of two districts, i.e., Cuttack and Khordha. These two districts represent the irrigated ecosystem and rainfed ecosystem, respectively. The study found that the total study region shows an increasing trend in the adoption intensity with the rise in the size of operational landholding even though the absolute area for large farmer group is the lowest. This positive association is higher in the irrigated region than in the rainfed ecosystem. There is no huge difference in adoption intensity of MVs across the farmer groups in the irrigated region as compared to their counterparts in the rainfed ecosystem. From the tobit model regression results, the study has found a glaring difference between the specific factors influencing the adoption intensity in both ecosystems. Factors like education, farm size, land position, extension visits, credit accessibility, local market, seed availability, perception about taste of MVs and shorter maturity of MVs were significantly influencing the adoption intensity in irrigated ecosystem. But, in the rainfed ecosystem, variables like non-farm activities, soil quality, land position, seed availability, perception on shorter maturity and higher yield of MVs were the significant determinants of adoption intensity. The pooled sample regression results reveal that the ecosystem dummy variable plays a significant role in the adoption decision. Therefore, the study pitches for the development of irrigation facilities along with rigorous implementation of farmer field school program and strengthening of agricultural extension networks.

The 50th year of green revolution - Why this cataclysmic turn after 1995?

In India a pilot scheme called Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) was introduced in seven districts in 1960-’61. However, the modern agricultural technology called High Yielding Varieties Programme (HYVP) or simply Green Revolution was introduced throughout the country in 1967-68. The introduction of HYVP transformed the ‘ship-to-mouth’ Indian economy into a ‘ship-to-others’ economy. The production of agricultural products, cereals in particular, increased tremendously after the introduction of HYVP. The total cereals production increased to 162 million tonnes in 1990-’91 from a mere quantity of 62 million tonnes in 1960-’61. It further increased to more than 235 million tonnes in 2015-’16. As cereals production increased the total food production also increased; it increased from 82 million tonnes in 1960-’61 to 176 million tonnes in 1990-’91 and to more than 252 million tonnes in 2015-’16. Of the cereals, wheat experienced a large quantum of increase; it was only 10 million tonnes in 1960-61, but in 1970 it had doubled and in 2013-’14 the production was 95.8 million tonnes. The ratio of wheat production to rice production was only 31 in 1960-’61, but it increased to 74 in 1990-’91 and further to 85 in the 2000s and the yield per hectare of wheat has also increased from 850 kg to more than 2900 kg in the same period (Datt and Sundaram; Mahapatra). However, the growth of agriculture is only 1% between 1991 and 2016, while other sectors grow at 8% per annum.

Растениеводство Среднего Урала в 1913—2012 гг.: сто лет реформирования

The article is devoted to the subject insufficiently developed in the domestic historiography, especially in regard to its regional dimension. The study is conducted on materials of the Centre of documentation of public organizations of Sverdlovsk region with the assistance of the scientific and publicistic literature. The relevance of the topic is determined by its high importance for the social sciences, especially for history. Scientific novelty of the work is seen in the fact that the new materials discovered by the author in these archives are introduced into scientific usage. The purpose of writing the article was to identify the certain stages of the history of Middle Urals crop production, its characteristic features and problems of growth and efficiency that had to be solved by the workers in this sector of the economy. It is noted that the importance of the crop to the economy of mankind is difficult to overestimate. It is argued that the periodization of the history of plant cultivation in the Middle Urals can be carried out on several grounds. It is claimed that a great help in the reasoning and conclusions of the article provided statistics on the growing region in the investigated period summarized in several tables. It is stated that the urbanization in Russia and the Soviet Union proceeded much more painfully than in Western countries, as occurred against the backdrop of a significant lagging of the country in socio-economic development. It is declared that the degradation of the planting was shown up, primarily, in a rather significant reduction of crops of most plants. It is emphasized that the authorities, especially since the 1960-ies, were trying in some way to improve the efficiency of agriculture and crop production. It is proved that the effect from the huge public investment was clearly inadequate and disproportionate: agriculture absorbed huge funds at low returns. The conclusion is that, despite the much more advanced modern agricultural technologies and the transfer of the agricultural sector on a market basis of functioning, one can’t talk about any significant progress in crop production in the region.