Moderator Variables Research Articles

The Impact of Academic Stress on Psychological Well-Being with Life-College Balance as a Moderating Variable for Students in Jakarta

Academic stress can affect a student's psychological well-being, but college-life balance can play a role in mitigating the impact. This study aims to analyze the influence of academic stress on the psychological well-being of students in Jakarta, by considering the life-college balance as a moderation variable. A quantitative approach with a cross-sectional design was used in this study, which involved 300 students in Jakarta. Data were obtained through questionnaires that measured academic stress (using the Academic Stress Scale / ASS), Work-Life Balance Scale (WLBS), and psychological well-being (Ryff's Psychological Well-Being Scale / RPWBS). Multiple linear regression analysis was applied to test the relationship between variables. The results showed a negative relationship between academic stress and students' psychological well-being, which was consistent with previous research. In addition, college-life balance was shown to moderate the effects of academic stress, where students who had a better college-life balance experienced a lower negative impact on their psychological well-being. These findings have significant implications for higher education policy, which needs to provide support programs to help students manage academic stress and improve their college-life balance. This research also opens up space for further research on other factors that can affect the psychological well-being of students.

The relationship between robotisation and work characteristics: a systematic literature review

Abstract Although the prevalence of robots in the workplace is growing at a considerable speed, findings on their relationship with employees’ work experiences remain scarce. This poses a challenge for managers attempting to implement robots, as the few existing studies often report contradictory findings. This systematic literature review aims to solve this issue by identifying relationship tendencies between robotisation and work characteristics and the potential moderator variables in this relationship, creating a basis for future research. Findings reflect the important role of robotisation as an antecedent to the extended Work Design Model (Humphrey et al. 2007). They reveal mixed tendencies when it comes to the relationship between robotisation and both task and contextual characteristics, with a positive tendency for knowledge characteristics and a negative tendency for social characteristics being most likely. Potential moderator variables include implementation strategy, type of job, and type of robot. We conclude the review with managerial and theoretical recommendations and outline opportunities for future research.

Sea Surface Temperature Forecasting Using Foundational Models: A Novel Approach Assessed in the Caribbean Sea

Sea surface temperature (SST) plays a pivotal role in air–sea interactions, with implications for climate, weather, and marine ecosystems, particularly in regions like the Caribbean Sea, where upwelling and dynamic oceanographic processes significantly influence biodiversity and fisheries. This study evaluates the performance of foundational models, Chronos and Lag-Llama, in forecasting SST using 22 years (2002–2023) of high-resolution satellite-derived and in situ data. The Chronos model, leveraging zero-shot learning and tokenization methods, consistently outperformed Lag-Llama across all forecast horizons, demonstrating lower errors and greater stability, especially in regions of moderate SST variability. The Chronos model’s ability to forecast extreme upwelling events is assessed, and a description of such events is presented for two regions in the southern Caribbean upwelling system. The Chronos forecast resembles SST variability in upwelling regions for forecast horizons of up to 7 days, providing reliable short-term predictions. Beyond this, the model exhibits increased bias and error, particularly in regions with strong SST gradients and high variability associated with coastal upwelling processes. The findings highlight the advantages of foundational models, including reduced computational demands and adaptability across diverse tasks, while also underscoring their limitations in regions with complex physical oceanographic phenomena. This study establishes a benchmark for SST forecasting using foundational models and emphasizes the need for hybrid approaches integrating physical principles to improve accuracy in dynamic and ecologically critical regions.

The Influence of E-Recruitment and Job Characteristics on Pursuit Job Intention with Company Reputation as Moderator

This study aims to determine the influence of e-recruitment and job characteristics on the pursuit of job intention of graduated student University in Yogyakarta city and company reputation as moderating variable. The study uses multiple linear regression analysis and moderated regression analysis with SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) as a test tool. Sampling was carried out using purposive sampling, and the number of samples was 87 graduated students from 2017 & 2018 at ABC University, especially in the Management Study Program. The result of this research indicates that e recruitment and job characteristics have a positive effect and significance on job pursuit intention. Company reputation as a moderate variable can strengthen the relationship between e-recruitment and interest in applying for work and job characteristics with interest in applying for work. The novelty of this research is that the company's reputation is one of the important variables that can strengthen the influence of recruitment and job characteristics on the interest of job seekers, where the results of previous research are still minimal. This research has theoretical and practical implications that are important to discuss further.

Relationships between cognitive presence and students’ learning outcomes in online higher education: a meta-analysis

Cognitive presence is essential for fostering meaningful online learning. However, previous studies have yielded mixed results, prompting meta-analyses to synthesize findings for clearer insights. While previous studies conducted meta-analyses regarding the association between cognitive presence and learning outcomes, they lacked studies on moderating effects and relied solely on the Community of Inquiry framework, highlighting the need for further exploration. Therefore, this study performed a meta-analysis specifically investigating relationships between cognitive presence and students’ learning outcomes, involving 32 studies. Results revealed that perceived learning (r = 0.685) and satisfaction (r = 0.628) were strongly positively related to cognitive presence. Notable variation was among individual studies (93.034% for perceived learning and 97.189% for satisfaction). Four moderator variables were analyzed: college level, disciplinary areas, course duration, and scale type. Moderator analysis showed significant differences across disciplinary areas, course duration, and scale type but not college level. Implications for future research are discussed.

Peripheral protein inflammatory biomarkers in bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Bipolar disorder (BD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) are mood disorders. The most frequent clinical presentation of BD and MDD is depression, which contributes to high rates of misdiagnosis between disorders. To support diagnostic discrimination and therapeutic stratification, we aim to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis evaluating peripheral protein inflammatory biomarkers between BD and MDD, with a focus on the depressive state. We conducted a literature search on PubMed, PsycInfo and Embase with no year/language restrictions. Original studies including human participants with a BD or MDD diagnosis which directly compared levels of peripheral protein inflammatory biomarkers between groups were included. A random effects meta-analysis was performed. 35 studies were included in the systematic review. 9 studies were included in the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis showed IL-7 (p < 0.01) levels were significantly decreased in BD, and IL-9 (p < 0.01), CCL3 (p = 0.03), CCL4 (p = 0.01), CCL5 (p = 0.02) and CCL11 (p = 0.04) levels were significantly increased in BD. High heterogeneity and limited dataset size restricted our meta-analysis to a small subset of biomarkers and limited our exploration of the effects of moderator variables. This study found differences in IL-7, IL-9, CCL3, CCL4, CCL5 and CCL11 between BD and MDD in a depressive state. These findings support the notion that inflammation is associated with mood disorder pathophysiology, particularly with respect to T-cell network dysregulation. Further studies can assist in better understanding differences between disorders and work towards clinical applications.

The impact of customer involvement of innovation outcomes: The role of moderator variables

AbstractTheoretically anchored in the Resource Based View of the firm, this study investigates the effect that customer involvement has on innovation outcomes. Our results, based on structural equation modeling of survey data from 296 Hungarian firms, show that involving customers does not lead directly to better financial incomes, instead the link between innovation performance and customer involvement is mediated by innovation novelty. This finding contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how customer involvement helps innovation outcomes. The findings highlight the role of contingency by showing that differentiation strategy positively, and knowledge sharing negatively moderate the positive effect of customer involvement on innovativeness. The study concludes with valuable theoretical and managerial implications and suggestions for future research.

Friendship matters: indirect effect of social support from friends on depressive symptoms and loneliness among university students

ABSTRACT Despite the growing number of international students in Portugal, there is a scarcity of quantitative research regarding how international and Portuguese students experience higher education. This study aimed to analyse the indirect effect of social support from friends on the relationship between depressive symptoms and loneliness among Portuguese and international students. Furthermore, the study proposed nationality as a moderator variable of the proposed mediation model. The survey data sample consisted of 940 participants (470 Portuguese and 470 international students) enrolled in a private university in Lisbon, Portugal, from January to May 2023. The bootstrap result for the indirect effect of social support from friends was significant, indicating that friends’ social support mediated the relationship between depressive symptoms and loneliness. Moreover, the results showed that the nationality of the students moderated the direct association between social support from friends and loneliness. No moderation effect was found in the indirect association (via social support from friends) between depressive symptoms and loneliness. This research advances our understanding of friends’ social support among university students of different nationalities while providing empirical data associated with depressive symptoms and loneliness. Moreover, the study delves into possible strategies to combat the expression of depressive symptoms and further loneliness.

The Role of Numeracy in Judgment and Decision Making: The Replication of Eleven Effects Across Various Numeracy Scales

Numeracy, representing the ability to understand and process information related to probabilities and numbers, is crucial for accurate decision making. This study evaluates the replicability of eleven effects that underscore the pivotal role of numeracy in judgment and decision making, with successful replication defined as a statistically significant effect in the same direction as reported in the original study. Furthermore, the study explores the potential impact of employing diverse objective numeracy measures on the replicability of the tested effects. Additionally, we investigated correlations with various numeric competencies beyond objective numeracy, including subjective numeracy and approximate numeracy. We ran an online study on Polish-speaking Prolific users (N = 209). Six correlational effects were successfully replicated using the same numeracy measures as the original studies (decision rules, financial knowledge, consistency in risk perception, medical risk comprehension, maximizing the expected value, and preference for suboptimal options). Another two correlational effects were replicated using subjective instead of objective numeracy measures (resistance to sunk cost and financial well-being). Findings regarding the role of numeracy as a moderator variable were mixed. Numeracy was not a statistically significant moderator of the strength of the framing effect, the attractiveness ratings of bets, and performance in the diagnostic inference task. Nevertheless, our exploratory analyses revealed that individuals with higher numeracy found the loss bet more attractive compared to the no-loss bet. Additionally, visual aids improved diagnostic inferences among participants with lower objective numeracy. This comprehensive examination provides valuable insights into the multifaceted interplay between numeracy and decision-making processes. Materials, data, and scripts are available at: https://osf.io/927bx/

Effectiveness of treatments teaching the topic ‘cell division’ in improving students’ academic performance: a meta-analysis study

ABSTRACT Background Science educators have tested several alternative pedagogical treatments (e.g. brain-based learning, computer-assisted instruction, and modelling) with different grades and implementation durations to improve students’ academic performance and overcome their alternative conceptions of the topic ‘cell division’. However, the relevant literature has not explored the degree to which the treatments improve participants’ academic performance. Thus, the current meta-analysis study handles this unexplored issue to fill in an important gap in the related literature. Purpose The study aimed to explore the effectiveness of the treatments teaching the topic ‘cell division’ in improving students’ academic performance throughout a meta-analysis. Sample The corpus of the data consisted of 47 experimental studies extracted from well-known educational databases (e.g. ERIC and Taylor & Francis) via the keyword patterns. Design and Methods This study used the meta-analysis method to calculate effect-sizes (Hedges’ g) of 47 experimental studies (k = 49) and compare them in regard to moderator variables. Results The overall effect-size of the treatments was found to be 1.392 and labelled under the very large effect. Also, the findings of the moderator variables indicated that educational level (Qvalue = 6.527; df = 2; p < .05) and implementation duration (Q-value = 8.300; df = 2; p < .05) significantly moderated the students’ academic performance through the treatments, whereas the type of treatment was non-significant (Q-value = 4.656; df = 6; p > .05). Conclusion The overall effect-size of the treatments points to a higher effect (a very large) in the students’ academic performance of the topic ‘cell division’ that means a better improvement than a traditional instruction. Thus, they have challenged the difficulties and dilemmas of a traditional instruction that makes little contribution to the students’ academic performance of the topic. Similarly, a U-shaped developmental curve of the mean effect-sizes of educational levels illuminates the need and prominence of this topic (with fundamental concepts) for middle school.

Evaluating physician concordance in interpretation of tracheobronchomalacia diagnosis and phenotyping using dynamic expiratory chest computed tomography

Tracheobronchomalacia (TBM) presents diagnostic challenges due to its nonspecific symptoms and variability in diagnostic methods. This study evaluates physician concordance in TBM diagnosis and phenotyping using chest computed tomography (CT) scans with dynamic expiratory views. We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional study at Mayo Clinic Rochester, analyzing 150 patients with dynamic expiratory CT scans. Three specialists—a thoracic radiologist, a bronchoscopist, and a pulmonologist—reviewed identical CT scans, blinded to prior interpretations. Inter-rater agreement was assessed using Fleiss’s Kappa for TBM diagnosis and Cohen’s Kappa for TBM phenotype classification into six categories: No TBM, Excessive Dynamic Airway Collapse (EDAC), Crescent Type, Circumferential Type, Saber-Sheath Type, and Mixed Type. Among the 150 patients, 54 (36%) were diagnosed with TBM or EDAC. TBM was more prevalent in males, older individuals, and smokers. Agreement among specialists was substantial for TBM diagnosis (Fleiss’s Kappa = 0.61, p < 0.001) but moderate for phenotype classification (Fleiss’s Kappa = 0.52, p < 0.001). The highest concordance was between the thoracic radiologist and the pulmonologist (Cohen’s Kappa = 0.68), while the lowest was between the bronchoscopist and other specialists. There is substantial agreement in TBM diagnosis using chest CT scans with dynamic expiratory views, but moderate variability in phenotyping. Standardizing criteria and integrating pulmonary function testing could enhance diagnostic consistency and clinical relevance.

Analyzing naturally-sourced Questions Under Discussion

The Question Under Discussion (QUD) framework of discourse has been a highly influential theoretical device in many accounts of various pragmatic phenomena, yet there has been comparatively little work assessing the extent to which the QUD can be reliably inferred from naturalistic contexts. In this paper, we focus primarily on measuring the variability across individuals in QUD inference, while also verifying other related, commonly held assumptions about QUD theory. To this end, we collect QUDs from many theoretically naive subjects tasked with processing a radio interview utterance by utterance. We consider various analyses designed to address the problem of measuring question similarity. Overall, we find that there exists moderate variability among subjects, consistent with possibly the insufficiency of context in determining QUD, or possibly also the simultaneous coexistence of multiple valid QUDs. To more adequately tease apart these possibilities, we also propose additional analyses for addressing the issue of question identity.

THE INFLUENCE OF FRUGALITY ON SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING WITH RELIGIOSITY AS A MODERATOR VARIABLE: A STUDY ON EARLY ADULT ONLINE SHOPPERS

This study aims to examine the influence of frugality on subjective well-being (SWB) in early adult online shoppers, with religiosity as a moderator variable. The study participants consisted of men and women aged 18-40 years who are online shoppers in Indonesia. The hypothesis test was carried out using the Multiple Linear Regression technique, and the results of this study showed that the results showed that a positive relationship was found between the three variables. The results of the study also showed that religiousosis positively moderated the relationship between the variables ( = 0.073, p 0.10). In addition, it was found that the relationship was negatively correlated with the two variables (P 0.05). In conclusion, it is suggested that online shoppers can implement a lifestyle of simplicity by making a list of shopping priorities, comparing prices between platforms, and considering the use value of products before making purchases.

Analyzing the Role of Government Support in Moderating Behavior and Revisit Intention in Halal Tourism

In the current era of globalization, the tourism industry faces demands to continue to adapt to changing tourist preferences, including for those who follow halal lifestyles and principles. The phenomenon of halal tourism is growing, demanding a deeper understanding of the factors that influence the behavior of Muslim travelers in choosing destinations and contributing to the sustainability of halal destinations. This study aims to investigate the impact of Halal Literacy, Perceived Risk, and Perceived Uncertainty on the Theory of Planned Behavior (SDGs) and how their influence influences the behavior and intention to return Muslim travelers, with Government Support as a moderator variable. This research is quantitative. Data was collected using a purposive random sampling method by distributing a questionnaire to 200 tourists visiting halal destinations in East Java. The results of this study explain that all hypotheses have a significant positive influence, except subjective norms, on behavior. In addition, using government support as moderator has a significant positive effect on behavior and revisit intention.

Short-term variability of Alzheimer’s disease plasma biomarkers in a mixed memory clinic cohort

BackgroundFor clinical implementation of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) blood-based biomarkers (BBMs), knowledge of short-term variability, is crucial to ensure safe and correct biomarker interpretation, i.e., to capture changes or treatment effects that lie beyond that of expected short-term variability and considered clinically relevant. In this study we investigated short-term intra- and inter-individual variability of AD biomarkers in the intended use population, memory clinic patients.MethodsIn a consecutive sample of memory clinic patients (AD n = 27, non-AD n = 20), blood samples were collected on three separate days within a period of 36 days and analysed for plasma Aβ40, Aβ42, p-tau181, p-tau217, p-tau231, T-tau, neurofilament light (NfL), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). We measured intra- and inter-individual variability and explored if the variability could be affected by confounding factors. Secondly, we established the minimum change required to detect a difference between two given blood samples that exceeds intra-individual variability and analytical variation (reference change value, RCV). Finally, we tested if classification accuracy varied across the three visits.ResultsIntra-individual variability ranged from ~ 3% (Aβ42/40) to ~ 12% (T-tau). Inter-individual variability ranged from ~ 7% (Aβ40) to ~ 39% (NfL). Adjusting the models for time, eGFR, Hba1c, and BMI did not affect the variation. RCV was lowest for Aβ42/Aβ40 (- ~ 15%/ + ~ 17%) and highest in p-tau181 (- ~ 30/ + ~ 42%). No variation in classification accuracies was found across visits.ConclusionWe found low intra-individual variability, robust to various factors, appropriate to capture individual changes in AD BBMs, while moderate inter-individual variability may give rise to caution in diagnostic contexts. High RCVs may pose challenges for AD BBMs with low fold changes and consequently, short-term variability is important to take into consideration when, e.g., estimating intervention effect and longitudinal changes of AD BBM levels.Trial registrationClinicaltrials.gov (NCT05175664), date of registration 2021–12-01.

Range-wide understanding of genetic diversity and population structure of endangered Kashmir musk deer in North-Western Himalaya.

The endangered Kashmir musk deer (Moschus cupreus), native to high-altitude Himalayas, is an ecological significant and endangered ungulate, threatened by habitat loss and poaching for musk pod distributed in western Himalayan ranges of India, Nepal and Afghanistan. Despite its critical conservation status and ecological importance in regulating vegetation dynamics, knowledge gaps persist regarding its population structure and genetic diversity, hindering effective management strategies. We aimed to understand the population genetics of Kashmir musk deer in north-western Himalayas using two mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) regions and 11 microsatellite loci. Total of 63 consensus sequences were analyzed, revealing 10 haplotypes with high haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.906 ± 0.031) and moderate nucleotide diversity (π = 0.00539 ± 0.004) at mitochondrial markers. Microsatellite analysis indicated moderate genetic variability, with observed heterozygosity (Ho = 0.445 ± 0.049) and expected heterozygosity (He = 0.764 ± 0.039), comparable to the forest musk deer but relatively lower than that observed in other ungulates. Population structure analysis identified three potential genetic clusters, with evidence of genetic admixture in the Lahaul Valley, possibly due to gene flow from neighboring areas. Historical demographic analyses using Bayesian skyline plots and mismatch distribution curves indicated stable population sizes in the past, followed by recent declines in maternal effective population size. Our findings highlight the necessity of preserving the genetic diversity of the Kashmir musk deer to ensure its long-term survival. We recommend expanding the geographic range of sampling to include regions such as Chamba and Kinnaur districts in Himachal Pradesh, potential areas in Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand, for more comprehensive population-level analysis. Such efforts will be crucial for developing targeted conservation strategies and mitigating the impacts of human activities on this endangered species.

The Strategic Role of Promotion in Moderating the Influence of Trust and Convenience on Mobile Banking Service User Loyalty

Mobile banking services are growing rapidly in the digital era, but the big challenge for banks is maintaining user loyalty. This study aims to analyze the influence of customer trust and ease of use on the loyalty of mobile banking service users, with promotion as a moderation variable. The method used is quantitative with a survey approach, where 105 respondents are selected by purposive sampling based on the criteria of active mobile banking users for at least 6 months, over 18 years old, have received promotions, and have a transaction frequency of at least 3 times per month. Data analysis was carried out by multiple linear regression using JASP software. The results showed that customer trust had a significant influence on user loyalty with a regression coefficient of 0.630 (p &lt; 0.05), while ease of use had a very significant effect with a regression coefficient of 0.705 (p &lt; 0.05). Promotion also plays a role as a moderation variable that strengthens the relationship between trust and loyalty (0.214; p &lt; 0.05), as well as between convenience and loyalty (0.430; p &lt; 0.05). The regression model shows an Adjusted R-squared value of 0.684, which indicates that the model can account for 68.4% variance in user loyalty. These findings emphasize the importance of building customer trust, providing ease of use, and designing effective promotions to increase mobile banking service user loyalty.

Evidence-based exercise recommendations to improve functional mobility in older adults - A study protocol for living systematic review and meta-analysis.

This is a protocol for a living systematic review and meta-analysis.This review will assess the effects of state-of-the-art exercise interventions designed to promote functional mobility. Therefore, after identifying all potential interventions, we will use the F.I.T.T. principles (frequency, intensity, time, type) as well as the physical and health status of the participants as moderators to analyse the mechanisms for the positive benefits of exercise interventions.The main research questions are:Which exercise types are most beneficial for improving functional mobility in various populations of older adults?Which physical exercise characteristics in terms of frequency, intensity, time and duration will achieve the greatest benefit in terms of the defined outcomes, i.e, the functional mobility of older adults? The systematic literature research according to PRISMA guidelines will search databases like MEDLINE, APA Psych-Info and Web of Science.Inclusion criteria are: healthy older people ≥ 50 years, randomized-controlled trials including exercise intervention and a walking or mobility assessments (eg., TUG, SPPB) as an outcome measure. A preliminary search revealed more than 33,000 hits that will be screened by pairs of independent reviewers. The results will be summarized according to the effects regarding functional mobility and potential dose-response relations via respective meta-analysis. The systematic review will comprise the knowledge of the existing literature with regards to the effects of the physical activity interventions compared to an active or inactive control group.We will summarize the effects with respect to the F.I.T.T.. They provide a foundation for structuring an optimal exercise training program. If possible, we will also compare interventions from the different categories (eg. cardiovascular, resistance, motor-coordinative, multicomponent or mind-body exercise) as a network analysis and report the influence of moderator variables. Based on the results evidence-based guidelines following GRADE for physical exercise interventions to improve functional mobility in older adults will be provided.

Diving Deep Into the Relationship Between Speech Fluency and Second Language Proficiency: A Meta‐Analysis

AbstractAbundant research has indicated fluency features as meaningful predictors of second language proficiency. However, the extent to which different fluency dimensions and features can predict proficiency remains underexplored. This meta‐analysis employed a multilevel modeling approach to synthesize fluency–proficiency relationships from 71 empirical studies from 1959–2023. Additionally, we examined several moderator variables, including task type, learning context, age, and proficiency measure. The correlations found were strongly positive for speed (r = .55), moderately positive for productivity (r = .38), moderately negative for breakdown (r = −.33), and weakly negative for repair (r = −.11). Moderator analyses revealed that task, learning context, and proficiency measure influence fluency–proficiency relationships in the repair, productivity, and speed dimensions, respectively. Post hoc analyses also suggested that the operationalization of breakdown features might make a difference in fluency–proficiency relationships. This study has both theoretical and methodological implications for second language fluency research.

Constraints to the initiation of home non-invasive ventilation and short-term efficacy in different diagnostic groups (as a prelude to an ambulatory shift).

Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) is the reference treatment for chronic respiratory failure (CRF) due to impairment of the ventilatory system. Home initiation is increasingly practiced. To better support this ambulatory shift, we aimed to assess the implementation constraints and short-term efficacy according to different aetiologies of CRF. This retrospective study with cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis included patients initiated with NIV at Angers University Hospital. Patients were separated according to the following aetiologies: obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS), chronic obstruction pulmonary disease (COPD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), myopathy and chest wall disease. Implementation constraints were assessed by analysing the variability of NIV settings, the number of masks tried and the duration of hospitalisation. NIV effectiveness was assessed by measuring residual PaCO2 (arterial pressure in CO2), apnoea hypopnea index (AHIflow) and tidal volume (VT) (as displayed by the NIV software). Between October 2020 and May 2022, 102 patients were started with NIV, including a majority of ALS patients. We found a moderate variability in NIV settings (pressure, slope, triggers, etc.) within the different etiological groups, particularly in ALS. On the other hand, ALS patients required more interface trials than other groups and often had unmet efficacy criteria at hospital discharge. Interestingly, longitudinal follow-up showed a progressive improvement in efficacy criteria, particularly in patients who were initially inadequately ventilated. Each aetiological group has specific constraints in the initiation of NIV that should be considered when initiating NIV in the outpatient setting.