Moderate Gradient Research Articles

Embedded single phase microfluidic thermal management for non-uniform heating and hotspots using microgaps with variable pin fin clustering

The presence of variable heat fluxes, such as localized hotspots in integrated circuit (IC) architectures poses a key challenge for thermal management of existing (2D) and emerging three-dimensionally (3D) stacked chips. The use of conventional microchannel or uniform pin fin arrays for microfluidic cooling do not provide adequate surface area for heat transfer in the vicinity of regions of concentrated high power (hotspots), and therefore significant temperature gradients might arise in such zones. In the present investigation, the concept of using a single microfluidic loop for the combined and efficient cooling of hotspot and moderate power (background) areas is proposed, experimentally demonstrated, and supported by a comprehensive numerical model. Two different thermal device vehicles (TDVs) are considered for a range of operating conditions, in which the surface area is locally increased by clustering a dense array of pin fins in the hotspot region for one configuration, while for the other the clustering is uniform in the spanwise direction. De-ionized (DI) water is used as the coolant through a silicon (Si) microgap with 200μm spacing; the hotspot heat flux is varied from 250 to 750W/cm2, while the background heat flux is fixed at 250W/cm2. Results indicate the capability of the proposed designs to keep the maximum temperature of the combined device below 65°C for an inlet water temperature of 21.3°C, with moderate temperature gradients and pressure drop. In addition, a robust computational fluid dynamics/heat transfer (CFD–HT) model capable of predicting spatially resolved temperature fields arising from heterogeneous heating is validated with relevant experimental data. Detailed benchmark simulations are provided, so they can be reproduced and used for reference in numerical studies with variable pin fin densities. The described methodology represents a cost-effective thermal modeling technique that may be applicable to virtually any type of heat flux distribution or power map, and IC architecture.

Are inter- and intraspecific variations of sapling crown traits consistent with a strategy promoting light capture in tropical moist forest?

Background and Aims Morphological variation in light-foraging strategies potentially plays important roles in efficient light utilization and carbon assimilation in spatially and temporally heterogeneous environments such as tropical moist forest understorey. By considering a suite of morphological traits at various hierarchical scales, we examined the functional significance of crown shape diversity and plasticity in response to canopy openness. Methods We conducted a field comparative study in French Guiana among tree saplings of 14 co-occurring species differing in light-niche optimum and breadth. Each leaf, axis or crown functional trait was characterized by a median value and a degree of plasticity expressed under contrasting light regimes. Key Results We found divergent patterns between shade-tolerant and heliophilic species on the one hand and between shade and sun plants on the other. Across species, multiple regression analysis showed that relative crown depth was positively correlated with leaf lifespan and not correlated with crown vertical growth rate. Within species displaying a reduction in crown depth in the shade, we observed that crown depth was limited by reduced crown vertical growth rate and not by accelerated leaf or branch shedding. In addition, the study provides contrasting examples of morphological multilevel plastic responses, which allow the maintenance of efficient foliage and enable effective whole-plant light capture in shaded conditions under a moderate vertical light gradient. Conclusions This result suggests that plastic adjustment of relative crown depth does not reflect a strategy maximizing light capture efficiency. Integrating and scaling-up leaf-level dynamics to shoot- and crown-level helps to interpret in functional and adaptive terms inter- and intraspecific patterns of crown traits and to better understand the mechanism of shade tolerance.

Decoupling of modern shortening rates, climate, and topography in the Caucasus

The Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountains and their associated foreland basins contain similar rock types, experience a similar two-fold, along-strike variation in mean annual precipitation, and were affected by extreme base-level drops of the neighboring Caspian Sea. However, the two Caucasus ranges are characterized by decidedly different tectonic regimes and rates of deformation that are subject to moderate (less than an order of magnitude) gradients in climate, and thus allow for a unique opportunity to isolate the effects of climate and tectonics in the evolution of topography within active orogens. There is an apparent disconnect between modern climate, shortening rates, and topography of both the Greater Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus which exhibit remarkably similar topography along-strike despite the gradients in forcing. By combining multiple datasets, we examine plausible causes for this disconnect by presenting a detailed analysis of the topography of both ranges utilizing established relationships between catchment-mean erosion rates and topography (local relief, hillslope gradients, and channel steepness) and combining it with a synthesis of previously published low-temperature thermochronologic data. Modern climate of the Caucasus region is assessed through an analysis of remotely-sensed data (TRMM and MODIS) and historical streamflow data. Because along-strike variation in either erosional efficiency or thickness of accreted material fail to explain our observations, we suggest that the topography of both the western Lesser and Greater Caucasus are partially supported by different geodynamic forces. In the western Lesser Caucasus, high relief portions of the landscape likely reflect uplift related to ongoing mantle lithosphere delamination beneath the neighboring East Anatolian Plateau. In the Greater Caucasus, maintenance of high topography in the western portion of the range despite extremely low (<2–4 mm/y) modern convergence rates may be related to dynamic topography from detachment of the north-directed Greater Caucasus slab or to a recent slowing of convergence rates. Large-scale spatial gradients in climate are not reflected in the topography of the Caucasus and do not seem to exert any significant control on the tectonics or structure of either range.

Monte Carlo approach to assess the uncertainty of wide-angle layered models: Application to the Santos Basin, Brazil

In the Santos Basin (Brazil), two parallel wide-angle refraction profiles show different crustal structures. One shows moderate crustal velocity gradient, and a clear Moho with topography. The other has an anomalous velocity zone, and no clear Moho reflections. This has large implications on the geological and geodynamical interpretation of the basin. Model uncertainties must be excluded as a source of these differences.We developed VMONTECARLO, a tool to assess model uncertainty of layered velocity models using a Monte Carlo approach and simultaneous parameter perturbation using all picked refracted and reflected arrivals. It gives insights into the acceptable geological interpretations allowed by data and model uncertainty through velocity-depth plots that provide: a) the velocity-depth profile range that is consistent with the travel times; b) the random model that provides the best fit, keeping most of the observations covered by ray-tracing; c) insight into valid models dispersion; d) main model features unequivocally required by the travel times, e.g., first-order versus second-order discontinuities, and velocity gradient magnitudes; e) parameter value probability distribution histograms.VMONTECARLO is seamlessly integrated into a RAYINVR-based modelling work-flow, and can be used to assess final models or sound the solution space for alternate models, and is also capable of evaluating forward models without the need for inversion, thus avoiding local minima that may trap the inversion algorithms and providing information for models still not well-parametrised.Results for the Brazilian models show that the imaged structures are indeed geologically different and are not due to different interpretations of the same features within the model uncertainty bounds. These differences highlight the strong heterogeneity of the crust in the middle of the Santos Basin, where the rift is supposed to have failed.

DSSCs with ZnO@TiO2 core–shell photoanodes showing improved Voc: Modification of energy gradients and potential barriers with Cd and Mg ion dopants

ZnO@TiO2 core–shell nanostructures have been manipulated with metal ion dopants to create DSSC photoanodes with reduced charge transfer recombination. ZnO and TiO2 were modified by doping with Cd and Mg, respectively, resulting in a reduction in the band-gap for Cd:ZnO and an increase in the band-gap for Mg:TiO2. A series of core–shell nanostructures based on a ZnO or a Cd:ZnO core and TiO2 or a Mg:TiO2 shell have been investigated as DSSC photoanodes. In another series, the core–shell materials were reversed for complete evaluation of our hypothesis. The structures of the core–shell nanoparticles, optoelectronic and interfacial charge transfer of the DSSCs were analyzed by XRD, SEM, TEM, XPS, Mott-Schottky experiment, UV–vis DRS, J–V and EIS measurements. The power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of DSSCs based on these core–shell structures were observed to depend on the flat band of the shell oxide relative to that of the core oxide. DSSCs with Cd:ZnO@Mg:TiO2 and Cd:ZnO@TiO2 photoanodes achieved Voc and FF values comparable to those of DSSCs with TiO2 anodes. A moderate energy gradient and high potential barrier in these core–shell structures resulted in longer effective electron lifetimes and lower electron recombination in the corresponding DSSCs. The low PCE registered for DSSCs with anodes of Cd:ZnO@Mg:TiO2 and Cd:ZnO@TiO2 were attributed to the presence of a high proportion of rutile phase, caused by sintering at 650°C and lower dye adsorption as a result larger particle sizes caused by Cd doping.

On determining characteristic length scales in pressure-gradient turbulent boundary layers

In the present work, we analyze three commonly used methods to determine the edge of pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers: two based on composite profiles, the one by Chauhan et al. [“Criteria for assessing experiments in zero pressure gradient boundary layers,” Fluid Dyn. Res. 41, 021404 (2009)] and the one by Nickels [“Inner scaling for wall-bounded flows subject to large pressure gradients,” J. Fluid Mech. 521, 217–239 (2004)], and the other one based on the condition of vanishing mean velocity gradient. Additionally, a new method is introduced based on the diagnostic plot concept by Alfredsson et al. [“A new scaling for the streamwise turbulence intensity in wall-bounded turbulent flows and what it tells us about the ‘outer’ peak,” Phys. Fluids 23, 041702 (2011)]. The boundary layers developing over the suction and pressure sides of a NACA4412 wing section, extracted from a direct numerical simulation at chord Reynolds number Rec = 400 000, are used as the test case, besides other numerical and experimental data from favorable, zero, and adverse pressure-gradient flat-plate turbulent boundary layers. We find that all the methods produce robust results with mild or moderate pressure gradients, although the composite-profile techniques require data preparation, including initial estimations of fitting parameters and data truncation. Stronger pressure gradients (with a Rotta–Clauser pressure-gradient parameter β larger than around 7) lead to inconsistent results in all the techniques except the diagnostic plot. This method also has the advantage of providing an objective way of defining the point where the mean streamwise velocity is 99% of the edge velocity and shows consistent results in a wide range of pressure gradient conditions, as well as flow histories. Collapse of intermittency factors obtained from a wide range of pressure-gradient and Re conditions on the wing further highlights the robustness of the diagnostic plot method to determine the boundary layer thickness (equivalent to δ99) and the edge velocity in pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers.

Wellbore and groundwater temperature distribution eastern Snake River Plain, Idaho: Implications for groundwater flow and geothermal potential

A map of groundwater temperatures from the Eastern Snake River Plain (ESRP) regional aquifer can be used to identify and interpret important features of the aquifer, including aquifer flow direction, aquifer thickness, and potential geothermal anomalies. The ESRP is an area of high heat flow, yet most of this thermal energy fails to reach the surface, due to the heat being swept downgradient by the aquifer to the major spring complexes near Thousand Springs, ID, a distance of 300km. Nine deep boreholes that fully penetrate the regional aquifer display three common features: (1) high thermal gradients beneath the aquifer, corresponding to high conductive heat flow in low-permeability hydrothermally-altered rocks; (2) isothermal temperature profiles within the aquifer, characteristic of an actively flowing groundwater; and (3) moderate thermal gradients in the vadose zone with values that indicate that over half of the geothermal heat flow is removed by advective transport in the regional aquifer system. This study utilized temperature data from 250 ESRP aquifer wells to evaluate regional aquifer flow direction, aquifer thickness, and potential geothermal anomalies. Because the thermal gradients are typically low in the aquifer, any measurement of groundwater temperature is a reasonable estimate of temperature throughout the aquifer thickness, allowing the construction of a regional aquifer temperature map for the ESRP. Mapped temperatures are used to identify cold thermal plumes associated with recharge from tributary valleys and adjacent uplands, and warm zones associated with geothermal input to the aquifer. Warm zones in the aquifer can have various causes, including local circulation of groundwater through the deep conductively dominated region, slow groundwater movement in low-permeability regions, or localized heat flow from deeper thermal features.

On determining characteristic length scales in pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers

In the present work we analyze three methods used to determine the edge of pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers: two based on composite profiles, the one by Chauhan et al. (Fluid Dyn. Res. 41:021401, 2009) and the one by Nickels (J. Fluid Mech. 521:217–239, 2004), and the other one based on the condition of vanishing mean velocity gradient. Additionally, a new method is introduced based on the diagnostic plot concept by Alfredsson et al. (Phys. Fluids 23:041702, 2011). The boundary layer developing over the suction side of a NACA4412 wing profile, extracted from a direct numerical simulation at Rec = 400,000, is used as the test case. We find that all the methods produce robust results with mild or moderate pressure gradients, but stronger pressure gradients (with β larger than around 7) lead to inconsistent results in all the techniques except the diagnostic plot. This method also has the advantage of providing an objective way of defining the point where the mean streamwise velocity is 99% of the edge velocity, and shows consistent results in a wide range of pressure gradient conditions, as well as flow histories. Therefore, the technique based on the diagnostic plot is a robust method to determine the boundary layer thickness (equivalent to δ99) and edge velocity in pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers.

HPLC method development for the online-coupling of chromatographic Perilla frutescens extract separation with xanthine oxidase enzymatic assay

Enzyme-regulatory effects of compounds contained in complex mixtures can be unveiled by coupling a continuous-flow enzyme assay to a chromatographic separation. A temperature-elevated separation was developed and the performance was tested using Perilla frutescens plant extracts of various polarity (water, methanol, ethanol/water). Owning to the need of maintaining sufficient enzymatic activity, only low organic solvent concentrations can be added to the mobile phase. Hence, to broaden the spectrum of eluting compounds, two different organic solvents and various contents were tested. The chromatographic performance and elution was further improved by the application of a moderate temperature gradient to the column. By taking the effect of eluent composition as well as calculated logD values and molecular structure of known extract compounds into account, unknown features were tentatively assigned. The method used allowed the successful observation of an enzymatic inhibition caused by P. frutescens extract.

River braiding caused by rapid floodplain deformation – Insights from Holocene dynamics of the Jarama River in central Spain

In this paper we will use an illustrative example to show the significance of rapid vertical movements inside floodplains as well as varying discharge values for the alteration of channel and sedimentation patterns during the Holocene. Concerning such relationships, well documented and well dated references from sedimentary records are rather rare. The developments within the lower Jarama Valley have been significantly supported by an interaction of tectonic activity, evaporite dissolution, and halokinetics that initiated rapid vertical movements over short distances and caused the formation of knick-points and gradient changes along the longitudinal floodplain profile. Furthermore, the specific Mediterranean climate caused highly variable discharges including extreme runoff peaks.The juxtaposition of different floodplain gradients gave rise to spatial and temporal changes of discharge patterns and channel geometry, which is reflected by varying sedimentation as well as erosion patterns. We have been able to confirm that alluvial thickening due to intense dissolution and subsidence has been a characteristic and frequently recurring feature during the Pleistocene. Moreover, we want to emphasize that also during the Holocene gradient adjustments exercised controlling influence on fluvial dynamics, in particular with regard to channel response. In fact, we found consistency between low and moderate gradients and meandering single channel patterns associated with overbank deposition in distal floodplain positions. Only a section with stronger inclination revealed evidences for multiple channel discharge patterns in form of gravelly braided river deposits. In comparison with recent discharge patterns and information from historical sources it appears that braided river deposition took place just within a short time frame between 5 and 3 ka cal. BP. This matches exactly a period of strong climatic aridity including highly variable precipitation and discharge patterns. From that we conclude, that in the first instance, gradient changes promoted the change of channel and discharge patterns, but however, specific overlap of the parameters gradient and runoff is considered to have been necessary to generate braided discharge pattern. A subsequent formation of braided patterns during the Late Holocene was presumably prevented by river entrenchment as well as a strong increase of sediment availability during the time of Roman colonization.On the basis of this study, we can establish a number of general relationships between floodplain gradient, runoff pattern, and channel response during the Holocene period that may help us to better understand fluvial behavior in various different areas.

Tree mortality and structural change following mixed-severity fire in Pseudotsuga forests of Oregon’s western Cascades, USA

Mixed-severity fires are increasingly recognized as common in Pseudotsuga forests of the Pacific Northwest and may be an important mechanism for developing or maintaining their structural diversity and complexity. Questions remain about how tree mortality varies and forest structure is altered across the disturbance gradient imposed by these fires. Therefore, we sampled live and dead trees at 45–1.0ha plots, each with four 0.10ha nested subplots, stratified across an unburned, low, moderate and high-severity fire gradient. Burned plots were primarily sampled 10 and 22years post-fire, except three plots sampled four years post-fire. We estimated probability of mortality for fire-tolerant (Douglas-fir, incense-cedar, sugar pine) and fire-intolerant (western hemlock, western redcedar, true fir) trees from 5079 samples. The probability of mortality varied across all species and fire-severity classes, but the greatest difference was observed between fire-tolerant and fire-intolerant functional groups. Probability of mortality decreased with increasing DBH for all species except western hemlock that did not increase its fire resistance with increasing size. Some large, fire-tolerant trees survived high-severity fire but only in 31% of our plots. Snag fall and fragmentation was estimated for trees killed by the fire from 2746 sampled snags and logs 10 and 22years post-fire. The proportion of snags fallen decreased with increasing DBH for all species, and was positively correlated with fire severity, except for Douglas-fir that had a higher proportion felled following low-severity fire. Snag fragmentation rates were positively correlated with DBH and fire severity for all species. Individual tree and snag estimates were scaled to plot-level structural attributes and contrasted by their coefficient of variation within- and among-plots from unburned to moderate-severity, as well as across all sampled conditions. Structural attributes varied more within- than among-plots, likely a result of patchy mortality that increased with fire severity. Although vertical and horizontal structural diversity increased at sub-hectare scales, the highest variability occurred for all structural attributes when compared across all sampled conditions. We conclude that the range of fire effects imposed by mixed-severity fire is important in creating structural diversity in Pseudotsuga forests of the Pacific Northwest and should be promoted through progressive fire management programs aimed at maintaining this forest’s fire regime now and in the future.

The Dual Role of the Plastid Terminal Oxidase PTOX: Between a Protective and a Pro-oxidant Function.

The Dual Role of the Plastid Terminal Oxidase PTOX: Between a Protective and a Pro-oxidant Function.

Stochastic pumping of ions based on colored noise in bacterial channels under acidic stress.

Fluctuation-driven ion transport can be obtained in bacterial channels with the aid of different types of colored noise including the biologically relevant Lorentzian one. Using the electrochemical rectification of the channel current as a ratchet mechanism we observe transport of ions up to their concentration gradient under conditions similar to that met in vivo, namely moderate pH gradients and asymmetrically charged lipid membranes. We find that depending on the direction of the concentration gradient the channel can pump either cations or anions from the diluted side to the concentrated one. We discuss the possible relevance of this phenomenon for the pH homeostasis of bacterial cells.

Self‐accelerated development of salt karst during flash floods along the Dead Sea Coast, Israel

AbstractWe document and analyze the rapid development of a real‐time karst system within the subsurface salt layers of the Ze'elim Fan, Dead Sea, Israel by a multidisciplinary study that combines interferometric synthetic aperture radar and light detection and ranging measurements, sinkhole mapping, time‐lapse camera monitoring, groundwater level measurements and chemical and isotopic analyses of surface runoff and groundwater. The &gt;1 m/yr drop of Dead Sea water level and the subsequent change in the adjacent groundwater system since the 1960s resulted in flushing of the coastal aquifer by fresh groundwater, subsurface salt dissolution, gradual land subsidence and formation of sinkholes. Since 2010 this process accelerated dramatically as flash floods at the Ze'elim Fan were drained by newly formed sinkholes. During and immediately after these flood events the dissolution rates of the subsurface salt layer increased dramatically, the overlying ground surface subsided, a large number of sinkholes developed over short time periods (hours to days), and salt‐saturated water resurged downstream. Groundwater flow velocities increased by more than 2 orders of magnitudes compared to previously measured velocities along the Dead Sea. The process is self‐accelerating as salt dissolution enhances subsidence and sinkhole formation, which in turn increase the ponding areas of flood water and generate additional draining conduits to the subsurface. The rapid terrain response is predominantly due to the highly soluble salt. It is enhanced by the shallow depth of the salt layer, the low competence of the newly exposed unconsolidated overburden and the moderate topographic gradients of the Ze'elim Fan.

Terahertz emission from two-plasmon-decay induced transient currents in laser-solid interactions

We have studied the generation of terahertz (THz) radiation via the interaction of intense femtosecond laser pulses with solid targets at a small incidence angle. It is found that preplasma with a moderate density gradient can enhance the emission. We also observe saturation of the THz output with the driving laser energy. We find that THz emission is closely related to the 3/2 harmonics of the driving laser. Particle-in-cell simulations indicate that under the present experimental conditions, the THz emission could be attributed to the transient currents at the plasma-vacuum interface, mainly formed by the two-plasmon-decay instability.

Precipitates originating from tungsten crucible parts in AlN bulk crystals grown by the PVT method

In order to evaluate the possible involvement of crucible materials in the growth of AlN bulk crystals grown by physical vapor transport, we applied growth conditions with a high vertical thermal gradient and hence high supersaturation of aluminum vapor. Under these conditions, precipitates formed causing diffuse grayish substructures at the initial growth interface and in the crystal body, decorating dislocations. Electron microscopy studies revealed that the precipitates are elongated, single‐phase particles with sizes of 50–500 nm of commensurate structure, oriented along the &lt;110&gt; direction. Chemical analysis of the precipitates showed tungsten as well as carbon and oxygen. The lattice parameters of the precipitates are in close agreement to hexagonal tungsten hemicarbide (W2C). The possible transport from the tungsten parts and its conversion into tungsten hemicarbide precipitates is discussed. We thus conclude that the W2C precipitates may contribute to the decoration of dislocations, even in growth with moderate thermal gradients.

No-tillage controls on runoff: A meta-analysis

Runoff from farmland is of great importance to both agricultural and environmental sustainability. In the present study, a meta-analysis was conducted to quantify the effectiveness of no-tillage (NT) in reducing surface runoff and to explore the factors controlling the effectiveness. Results showed that overall, NT significantly reduced runoff by 21.9% and 27.2% compared to reduced tillage (RT) and conventional moldboard plow (MP), respectively. The effectiveness of NT in reducing runoff was higher under simulated than natural rainfall, particularly as compared to MP. The reduction in runoff under NT was significant and greatest for moderate slope gradients (5–10%) relative to both RT and MP, but without statistical significance for both gentle (<5%) and steep (>10%) slope gradients. As compared to MP, the effectiveness of NT in reducing runoff decreased over time, whereas no such trend was found relative to RT. Compared to RT, NT significantly reduced runoff in soils with low clay content (<33% clay), while resulting in a slight but non-significant increase in runoff in soils with high clay content (≥33% clay). The effectiveness of NT in reducing runoff compared to RT did not vary with tillage direction. Runoff was significantly reduced by NT with crop residue retention relative to RT, but not with residue removal. Our results conclude that NT needs to be adapted to specific environmental conditions and management practices for improved controls on runoff.

Carbon-Nanohorn Based Nanofluids for a Direct Absorption Solar Collector for Civil Application.

Direct solar absorption has been often considered in the past as a possible solution for solar thermal collectors for residential and small commercial applications. A direct absorption could indeed improve the performance of solar collectors by skipping one step of the heat transfer mechanism in standard devices and having a more convenient temperature distribution inside the collector. Classical solar thermal collectors have a metal sheet as absorber, designed such that water has the minimum temperature in each transversal section, in order to collect as much solar thermal energy as possible. On the other hand, in a direct configuration, the hottest part of the system is the operating fluid and this allows to have a more efficient conversion. Nanofluids, i.e., fluids with a suspension of nanoparticles, such as carbon nanohorns, could be a good and innovative family of absorbing fluids owing to their higher absorption coefficient compared to the base fluid and stability under moderate temperature gradients. Moreover, carbon nanohorns offer the remarkable advantage of a reduced toxicity over other carbon nanoparticles. In this work, a three-dimensional model of the absorption phenomena in nanofluids within a cylindrical tube is coupled with a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis of the flow and temperature field. Measured optical properties of nanofluids at different concentrations have been implemented in the model. Heat losses due to conduction, convection and radiation at the boundaries are considered as well.

Monazite Dating of Prograde and Retrograde P–T–d paths in the Barrovian terrane of the Thaya window, Bohemian Massif

Monazite laser ablation–split-stream inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry (LASS) was used to date monazite in situ in Barrovian-type micaschists of the Moravian zone in the Thaya window, Bohemian Massif. Petrography and garnet zoning combined with pseudosection modelling show that rocks from staurolite–chlorite, staurolite, kyanite and kyanite–sillimanite zones record burial in the S1 fabric under a moderate geothermal gradient from 4–4·5 kbar and ∼530–540°C to 5 kbar and 570°C, 6–7 kbar and 600–640°C, 7·5–8 kbar and 630–650°C, and 8 kbar and 650°C, respectively. In the kyanite and kyanite–sillimanite zones, garnet rim chemistry and local syntectonic replacement of garnet by sillimanite–biotite aggregates point to re-equilibration at 5·5–6 kbar and 630–650°C in the S2 fabric. Heterogeneously developed retrograde shear zones (S3) are marked by widespread chloritization, but minor chlorite is present in the studied samples. Monazite abundance and size increase with metamorphic grade from 5 µm in the staurolite–chlorite zone to >100 µm in the kyanite and kyanite–sillimanite zones. Irrespective of the monazite-forming reaction, this is interpreted as the onset of limited prograde monazite growth at staurolite grade, and continued prograde monazite growth after the kyanite-in reaction, compatible with conditions of about 5·5 kbar and 570°C and 7·5 kbar and 630°C from pseudosection modelling. Monazite is zoned, showing embayments and sharp boundaries between zones, with low Y in the staurolite zone, high-Y cores and low-Y rims in the kyanite zone, and high-Y cores, a low-Y mantle and a high-Y rim in the sillimanite zone. The 207Pb-corrected 238U/206Pb ages from three samples range from 344 ± 7 to 330 ± 7 Ma, irrespective of metamorphic grade. The dates from monazite inclusions are interpreted as the ages of the staurolite- and kyanite-in reactions along the prograde path at 340 and 337 ± 7 Ma, respectively. The monazite in the matrix (and some inclusions) is interpreted as dating the prograde crystallization at (340–337) ± 7 Ma within the S1 fabric, and then being affected by recrystallization at or down to 332 ± 7 Ma in the S2 and S3 fabrics. The two groups of data, for 340–337 and 332 Ma, are significantly different when only their in-run uncertainties (±1–3 Myr) are compared and indicate a 9 ± 3 Myr period of monazite (re)crystallization. A systematic increase in heavy rare earth element (HREE) content with decreasing monazite age from 344 to 335 Ma is correlated with growth on the prograde P–T path; the drop in HREE of monazite at 335–328 Ma is assigned to recrystallization. The presence of chlorite even in the least retrogressed samples witnesses limited external fluid availability on the retrograde P–T path. Migration of this fluid was probably responsible for heterogeneous fluid-assisted recrystallization and resetting of original prograde monazite, even where included in garnet, staurolite or kyanite. It is suggested that the rocks passed the chlorite-in reaction on the retrograde path at 332 ± 7 Ma. The timing of burial in the Thaya window, a deformed part of the underthrust Brunia microcontinent, was coeval with exhumation of granulites and migmatites of the Moldanubian orogenic root at c. 340 Ma.

Impurity effects on short wavelength ion temperature gradient mode in elongated tokamak plasmas

The effects of impurity ions on the short wavelength ion temperature gradient (SWITG) driven instability in elongated tokamak plasmas are numerically investigated with the gyrokinetic integral eigenmode equation. It is found that for a moderate electron density gradient, the SWITG mode is first destabilized and then stabilized with increasing elongation κ, which is different from the conventional long wavelength ITG mode. For a large electron density gradient, the elongation can effectively stabilize the SWITG mode. Moreover, the low Z impurity ions with inwardly (outwardly) peaked density profiles have stabilizing (destabilizing) effects on the SWITG modes in elongated plasmas. Interestingly, the high Z tungsten impurity ions with inwardly peaked density profiles play a stronger stabilizing role in the SWITG modes than the low Z impurity ions (such as carbon and oxygen) do. In particular, the high Z tungsten impurity ions with a weakly outwardly peaked density profile still have a stabilizing effect. Finally, the critical threshold of impurity density gradient scale length for exciting impurity mode is also numerically obtained, indicating that the impurity mode is harder to be excited in elongated plasmas than in circular ones.