Moderate Alzheimer's Dementia Research Articles

Safety, Tolerability, and Feasibility of Young Plasma Infusion in the Plasma for Alzheimer Symptom Amelioration Study

Young mouse plasma restores memory in aged mice, but, to our knowledge, the effects are unknown in patients with Alzheimer disease (AD). To assess the safety, tolerability, and feasibility of infusions of young fresh frozen plasma (yFFP) from donors age 18 to 30 years in patients with AD. The Plasma for Alzheimer Symptom Amelioration (PLASMA) study randomized 9 patients under a double-blind crossover protocol to receive 4 once-weekly infusions of either 1 unit (approximately 250 mL) of yFFP from male donors or 250 mL of saline, followed by a 6-week washout and crossover to 4 once-weekly infusions of an alternate treatment. Patients and informants were masked to treatment and subjective measurements. After an open-label amendment, 9 patients received 4 weekly yFFP infusions only and their subjective measurements were unmasked. Patients were enrolled solely at Stanford University, a tertiary academic medical center, from September 2014 to December 2016, when enrollment reached its target. Eighteen consecutive patients with probable mild to moderate AD dementia, a Mini-Mental State Examination (score of 12 to 24 inclusive), and an age of 50 to 90 years were enrolled. Thirty-one patients were screened and 13 were excluded: 11 failed the inclusion criteria and 2 declined to participate. One unit of yFFP from male donors/placebo infused once weekly for 4 weeks. The primary outcomes were the safety, tolerability, and feasibility of 4 weekly yFFP infusions. Safety end point analyses included all patients who received the study drug/placebo. There was no difference in the age (mean [SD], 74.17 [7.96] years), sex (12 women [67%]), or baseline Mini-Mental State Examination score (mean [SD], 19.39 [3.24]) between the crossover (n = 9) and open-label groups (n = 9). There were no related serious adverse events. One patient discontinued participation because of urticaria and another because of an unrelated stroke. There was no statistically significant difference between the plasma (17 [94.4%]) and placebo (9 [100.0%]) cohorts for other adverse events, which were mild to moderate in severity. The most common adverse events in the plasma group included hypertension (3 [16.7%]), dizziness (2 [11.1%]), sinus bradycardia (3 [16.7%]), headache (3 [16.7%]), and sinus tachycardia (3 [16.7%]). The mean visit adherence (n = 18) was 86% (interquartile range, 87%-100%) and adherence, accounting for a reduction in the total visit requirement due to early patient discontinuation, was 96% (interquartile range, 89%-100%). The yFFP treatment was safe, well tolerated, and feasible. The study's limitations were the small sample size, short duration, and change in study design. The results warrant further exploration in larger, double-blinded placebo-controlled clinical trials. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02256306.

Central pharmacodynamic activity of solanezumab in mild Alzheimer's disease dementia

IntroductionSolanezumab treatment was previously shown to significantly increase total (bound + unbound) cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of amyloid β (Aβ)1–40 and Aβ1–42 in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease dementia yet did not produce meaningful cognitive effects. This analysis assessed solanezumab's central nervous system target engagement by evaluating changes in CSF total and free Aβ isoforms and their relationship with solanezumab exposure. MethodsCSF Aβ isoform concentrations were measured in patients with mild Alzheimer's disease dementia from a pooled EXPEDITION + EXPEDITION2 population and from EXPEDITION3. CSF solanezumab concentrations were determined from EXPEDITION3. ResultsSolanezumab produced statistically significant increases in CSF total Aβ isoforms versus placebo, which correlated with CSF solanezumab concentration. Inconsistent effects on free Aβ isoforms were observed. Solanezumab penetration into the central nervous system was low. DiscussionSolanezumab administration engaged the central molecular target, and molar ratio analyses demonstrated that higher exposures may further increase CSF total Aβ concentrations.

Non-Pharmacological Therapies in People with Alzheimer Dementia: Comparing Hand Massage and Conversational Approach in the Italian Context

Non-pharmacological therapies have shown to have significant benefits in reducing behavioral psychological symptoms in people with dementia. This is a pilot study to compare the efficacy of two non-pharmacological treatments in people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's Dementia (AD) with behavioral psychological symptoms: hand massage and conversational approach.

Management and Therapeutic Issues in the Dementias

As of 2016, treatment of Alzheimer disease (AD) dementia and the principal non-AD dementias is entirely palliative. Although there are several drugs approved for the treatment of mild to moderate AD dementia, these drugs—the cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine—have rather modest benefits. In general, nonpharmacologic approaches to the management of patients with dementia emphasize support for the caregiver, attention to safety, and providing a supportive and socially enriched environment for the patient. Depression is common in dementias of diverse etiology; lower doses of later-generation antidepressants are effective in controlling depressive symptoms in patients with dementia. Agitation is not a ubiquitous occurrence in patients with dementia, but physically aggressive behavior, hallucinations, and delusions affect a sizable fraction of patients with dementia. There is much controversy regarding the appropriate medication classes to use in cases of agitation, but the antipsychotic agent quetiapine is often effective and unique among its class in not causing parkinsonism or tardive dyskinesia. Key words: antidepressants, antipsychotic agents, caregiver support, cholinesterase inhibitors

Management and Therapeutic Issues in the Dementias

As of 2016, treatment of Alzheimer disease (AD) dementia and the principal non-AD dementias is entirely palliative. Although there are several drugs approved for the treatment of mild to moderate AD dementia, these drugs—the cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine—have rather modest benefits. In general, nonpharmacologic approaches to the management of patients with dementia emphasize support for the caregiver, attention to safety, and providing a supportive and socially enriched environment for the patient. Depression is common in dementias of diverse etiology; lower doses of later-generation antidepressants are effective in controlling depressive symptoms in patients with dementia. Agitation is not a ubiquitous occurrence in patients with dementia, but physically aggressive behavior, hallucinations, and delusions affect a sizable fraction of patients with dementia. There is much controversy regarding the appropriate medication classes to use in cases of agitation, but the antipsychotic agent quetiapine is often effective and unique among its class in not causing parkinsonism or tardive dyskinesia. Key words: antidepressants, antipsychotic agents, caregiver support, cholinesterase inhibitors

Management and Therapeutic Issues in the Dementias

As of 2016, treatment of Alzheimer disease (AD) dementia and the principal non-AD dementias is entirely palliative. Although there are several drugs approved for the treatment of mild to moderate AD dementia, these drugs—the cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine—have rather modest benefits. In general, nonpharmacologic approaches to the management of patients with dementia emphasize support for the caregiver, attention to safety, and providing a supportive and socially enriched environment for the patient. Depression is common in dementias of diverse etiology; lower doses of later-generation antidepressants are effective in controlling depressive symptoms in patients with dementia. Agitation is not a ubiquitous occurrence in patients with dementia, but physically aggressive behavior, hallucinations, and delusions affect a sizable fraction of patients with dementia. There is much controversy regarding the appropriate medication classes to use in cases of agitation, but the antipsychotic agent quetiapine is often effective and unique among its class in not causing parkinsonism or tardive dyskinesia. Key words: antidepressants, antipsychotic agents, caregiver support, cholinesterase inhibitors

Management and Therapeutic Issues in the Dementias

As of 2016, treatment of Alzheimer disease (AD) dementia and the principal non-AD dementias is entirely palliative. Although there are several drugs approved for the treatment of mild to moderate AD dementia, these drugs—the cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine—have rather modest benefits. In general, nonpharmacologic approaches to the management of patients with dementia emphasize support for the caregiver, attention to safety, and providing a supportive and socially enriched environment for the patient. Depression is common in dementias of diverse etiology; lower doses of later-generation antidepressants are effective in controlling depressive symptoms in patients with dementia. Agitation is not a ubiquitous occurrence in patients with dementia, but physically aggressive behavior, hallucinations, and delusions affect a sizable fraction of patients with dementia. There is much controversy regarding the appropriate medication classes to use in cases of agitation, but the antipsychotic agent quetiapine is often effective and unique among its class in not causing parkinsonism or tardive dyskinesia. Key words: antidepressants, antipsychotic agents, caregiver support, cholinesterase inhibitors

Bright light therapy for sleep disturbance in dementia is most effective for mild to moderate Alzheimer's type dementia: a case series.

Sleep problems in people with dementia are common and place a high burden on caregivers. Although hypnotic agents are often used to treat sleep disturbances, their use is associated with a considerable number of high-risk side-effects such as daytime sleepiness, amnesia, and an increased frequency of falling. The administration of bright light therapy (BLT) in the morning was a non-pharmacological remedy that was expected to treat sleep disorders in patients with dementia by entraining the circadian rhythm to ameliorate disturbances to the normal sleep-wake cycle. However, there are some unsolved issues related to the application of BLT, including the types of dementia for which it is effective and its efficacy in the different stages of cognitive decline and dementia. Furthermore, a protocol for effective BLT has not yet been proposed. In this study, we explored the efficacy of BLT in the treatment of 17 participants, including those with Alzheimer's type dementia (AD) (n = 8), vascular dementia (n = 4), and dementia with Lewy bodies (n = 5). Patients sat in front of the light box for 1 h/day from 0900 to 1000. The patients underwent treatment every day for 2 weeks. BLT led to the improvement of sleep disturbance in four participants, all of whom were AD patients. The four AD patients showed a shorter duration of illness and/or had mild to moderate AD. BLT could be an effective strategy for treating dementia patients, depending on their type and grade of their dementia. To confirm this hypothesis, it would be necessary to study a larger number of cases. Non-pharmacological therapies for sleep disorders should be emphasized as a safe form of treatment for patients with dementia.

Electroconvulsive in a 75-year-old patient with severe agitated behavior and dementia

Various drugs have been used in the management of behavioral and psychotic symptoms including aggression and agitation in dementia. However, the risk of side effects and sedation limits the use of higher doses of many agents. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has been used in the management of behavioral symptoms related to dementia although sparingly and rare. We report the case of a 75.year.old male patient with moderate Alzheimer's dementia and severe agitated behavior and aggression which failed to respond to pharmacological treatment and whom we treated using seven ECT sessions with success. Significant clinical improvement was noted and no cognitive decline or worsening of the dementia in any form was reported. The patient was followed up 6 months post the ECT sessions. This case report demonstrates the safety and efficacy ECT use patients with Alzheimer's dementia when behavioral problems and aggression or agitation fail to respond to medications.

Memantine: from the original brand to generics

Memantine is the first clinically available glutamate antagonist, with an antagonist action at the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in the brain, for correction of cognitive and behavioral functions in neurodegenerative disorders. Glutamate mediated excitotoxic neuronal damage has been implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other parkinsonism-related dementias and, therefore, memantine represents a novel mode of action to counteract the glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity. In moderate to severe AD, 20 mg of memantine shows a positive effect on cognition, mood, behavior and the ability to perform activities of daily living. Long-term studies show good tolerability of memantine with an acceptable side-effect profile. In recent years, there have been a proliferation of a number of companies producing generic memantine with different trade names. In Russia, the first memantine generic drug noojerone was approved in 2010 and its use has since been supported by a growing evidence base of efficacy in real-life clinical practice. Postmarketing studies show that noojerone provides long-term and effective therapy in patients with moderate and severe Alzheimer's dementia. This observation is supported by the clinically significant therapeutic effect of noojerone on cognitive and daily functioning, behavioral and psychotic symptoms of dementia and a reduction of the burden on caregivers. This generic version of memantine is affordable and, therefore, reduces financial burden on patients and improves compliance with treatment.

"I Don't Think Of It As An Illness": Illness Representations in Mild to Moderate Dementia.

The self-regulatory model proposes that illness representations influence adjustment and coping in chronic conditions. Better understanding of the illness representations held by people with dementia could help with targeting information and support so as to optimize adjustment and coping. In this mixed-methods study of illness representations among people with mild to moderate Alzheimer's, vascular, or mixed dementia we aimed to clarify the nature of the representations held, to determine whether specific profiles can be identified based on perceptions of the identity and cause of the condition, and to examine associations between these profiles and other participant characteristics. Data were collected in the second wave of the Memory Impairment and Dementia Awareness Study (MIDAS). Sixty-four people with dementia, who had been told their diagnosis at a memory clinic, completed interviews and responded to questionnaires. In each case a carer was also interviewed. Cluster analysis based on responses about identity and cause identified three profiles. 'Illness' cluster participants saw themselves as living with an illness and used diagnostic labels, 'ageing' cluster participants did not use diagnostic labels and viewed their difficulties as related to ageing, and 'no problem' cluster participants considered that they did not have any difficulties. 'Illness' cluster participants had better cognition and better awareness, but lower mood, and perceived more practical consequences, than 'ageing' cluster participants. Holding an 'illness' model may not be advantageous. Rather than encouraging adoption of such a model, it may be preferable to target information and select interventions in line with the person's representation profile.

Florbetapir F18 PET Amyloid Neuroimaging and Characteristics in Patients With Mild and Moderate Alzheimer Dementia

Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer disease (AD) is challenging, with a 70.9%-87.3% sensitivity and 44.3%-70.8% specificity, compared with autopsy diagnosis. Florbetapir F18 positron emission tomography (FBP-PET) estimates beta-amyloid plaque density antemortem. Of 2052 patients (≥55 years old) clinically diagnosed with mild or moderate AD dementia from 2 solanezumab clinical trials, 390 opted to participate in a FBP-PET study addendum. We analyzed baseline prerandomization characteristics. A total of 22.4% had negative FBP-PET scans, whereas 72.5% of mild and 86.9% of moderate AD patients had positive results. No baseline clinical variable reliably differentiated negative from positive FBP-PET scan groups. These data confirm the challenges of correctly diagnosing AD without using biomarkers. FBP-PET can aid AD dementia differential diagnosis by detecting amyloid pathology antemortem, even when the diagnosis of AD is made by expert clinicians.

Motivational processes in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease: results from the Motivational Reserve in Alzheimer's (MoReA) study.

BackgroundBrain reserve, i.e., the ability of the brain to tolerate age- and disease-related changes in a way that cognitive function is still maintained, is assumed to be based on the lifelong training of various abilities. The Motivational Reserve in Alzheimer’s (MoReA) is a longitudinal study that aims to examine motivational processes as a protective factor in mild Alzheimer’s dementia (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). This paper presents the results of motivational variables, frequency of diagnoses, and prediction of global cognition as well as depression in a one-year longitudinal study.MethodsThe sample consists of 64 subjects with MCI and 47 subjects with mild AD at baseline. At baseline, the physical/neurological examinations, standard clinical assessment, neuropsychological testing, and assessment of motivational variables were performed. At follow-up (FU) one year later, neuropsychological testing including cognition, functional abilities, behavioral and affective symptoms, and global clinical assessments of severity have been repeated.ResultsAD cases have lower motivational capacities as measured with a midlife motivation-related occupational score and informant-reported present motivational processes, but do not differ with regard to delay of gratification (DoG) and self-reported motivational processes. DoG and delay discounting (DD) were relatively stable during the measurement interval. However, 20 % of the MCI cases converted to mild AD at FU, and 17 % of the mild AD cases converted to moderate AD. The rate of depression of Alzheimer’s disease was 9 at baseline and 21 % at FU, and the rate of apathy was 7 and 14 %, respectively. Global cognition at FU was mainly predicted by baseline global cognition but also by one of the motivational variables (scenario test). Depression at FU was predicted mainly by two motivational variables (self-reported and informant-reported motivational processes).ConclusionsThis research might inform motivation-related strategies for prevention and early intervention with older people or people at risk for AD.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12888-015-0666-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Alzheimer dementia with sparse amyloid—AD mimic or variant?

In a new study, one-quarter of individuals with a clinical diagnosis of mild to moderate Alzheimer dementia had no or only sparse neuritic amyloid plaques in their brains, and most were also at a low or an intermediate neurofibrillary tangle stage. The findings have enormous implications for clinical trials of anti-amyloid-β and anti-tau therapies.

Characterizing Apolipoprotein E ε4 Carriers and Noncarriers With the Clinical Diagnosis of Mild to Moderate Alzheimer Dementia and Minimal β-Amyloid Peptide Plaques.

β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ) plaques are a cardinal neuropathologic feature of Alzheimer disease (AD), yet more than one-third of apolipoprotein E ε4 (APOE4) noncarriers with the clinical diagnosis of mild to moderate Alzheimer dementia may not meet positron emission tomographic criteria for significant cerebral amyloidosis. To clarify the percentage of APOE4 carriers and noncarriers with the primary clinical diagnosis of mild to moderate Alzheimer dementia near the end of life and minimal Aβ plaques noted at autopsy and the extent to which these cases are associated with appreciable neurofibrillary degeneration or a primary neuropathologic diagnosis other than AD. Data on participants included in this study were obtained from the National Alzheimer Coordinating Center's Uniform Data Set, which comprises longitudinal clinical assessments performed at the AD centers funded by the National Institute on Aging. Neuropathology data are available for the subset of participants who died. A total of 100 APOE4 noncarriers and 100 APOE4 carriers had the primary clinical diagnosis of mild to moderate Alzheimer dementia at their last visit, known APOE4 genotype, died within the ensuing 24 months, and underwent neuropathologic evaluation on autopsy. The study was conducted from September 1, 2005, to September 1, 2012; analysis was performed from October 9, 2012, to March 20, 2015. Standardized histopathologic assessments of AD neuropathologic changes were the primary measures of interest in this study, specifically Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease neuritic plaque density score, diffuse plaque density score, and Braak stage for neurofibrillary degeneration. The distributions of scores for these measures were the primary outcomes. Of the 37 APOE4 noncarriers with minimal neuritic plaques, 16 individuals (43.2%) had Braak stages III to VI ratings, and 15 of the others (75.0%) met neuropathologic criteria for other dementia-related diseases. Of the 13 APOE4 carriers with minimal neuritic plaques, 6 individuals (46.2%) had Braak stages III to VI ratings and met neuropathologic criteria for other dementia-related diseases. Similarly, of the 7 APOE4 carriers with minimal neuritic plaques and Braak stages 0 to II, 4 participants (57.1%) were thought to have pathologic changes and alterations resulting from non-AD neuropathologic features. In this study, more than one-third of APOE4 noncarriers with the primary clinical diagnosis of mild to moderate Alzheimer dementia had minimal Aβ plaque accumulation in the cerebral cortex and, thus, may show limited or no benefit from otherwise effective anti-Aβ treatment. Almost half of the participants with a primary clinical diagnosis of mild to moderate Alzheimer dementia and minimal Aβ plaque accumulation had an extensive topographic distribution of neurofibrillary degeneration. Additional studies are needed to better understand and provide treatment for patients with this unexpectedly common cliniconeuropathologic condition.

Comment: Yet another "disconnect" between amyloid and Alzheimer disease?

Amyloid plaque pathology is a defining characteristic of Alzheimer disease (AD), and the amyloid cascade hypothesis remains a central focus of AD research. Yet at least a dozen treatment trials have achieved target engagement by reducing fibrillar amyloid or its production, but have shown no clinical benefit. The article by Liu et al.1 shows that the monoclonal anti‐Aβ antibody bapineuzumab diminished binding of 11C–Pittsburgh compound B (PiB) in mild to moderate AD dementia, most notably in persons with APOE e4.

Do cholinesterase inhibitors prolong the survival of patients with mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease?

Cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEI) are used to treat Alzheimer's dementia (AD) in many countries. In animal studies it was shown that donepezil has an influence on the survival of mice and rats with chronic heart failure. In the last years there was some evidence that even in humans ChEI may have a favourable effect on survival and cardiovascular death. PubMed was searched for double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled studies with donepezil and galantamine with more than 100 patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's dementia which reported the number of deaths. The odds ratio was then calculated for studies up to six months, 6 months to one year and above one year. For donepezil patients survival was better than placebo in the studies up to six months (relative risk verum/placebo: 0.35). After one year the relative risk was about on the placebo level (1.01) and after two years numerically worse than for placebo (1.27). For galantamine survival was also numerically better in the studies 3-6 months (relative risk verum/placebo: 0.71) and was still better after two years (0.59). Only in one of those studies mortality was a primary end point. The ChEI have a systemic effect which exceeds the pure cognitive ameliorations and which is perhaps associated with different survival rates in humans. This may be drug dependent and may play a role in the choice of the ChEI for a patient. Further long-term studies would be necessary to further assess this question.

Clinical Significance of Cerebrovascular Biomarkers and White Matter Tract Integrity in Alzheimer Disease: Clinical correlations With Neurobehavioral Data in Cross-Sectional and After 18 Months Follow-ups.

Cerebrovascular risk factors and white matter (WM) damage lead to worse cognitive performance in Alzheimer dementia (AD). This study investigated WM microstructure using diffusion tensor imaging in patients with mild to moderate AD and investigated specific fiber tract involvement with respect to predefined cerebrovascular risk factors and neurobehavioral data prediction cross-sectionally and after 18 months. To identify the primary pathoanatomic relationships of risk biomarkers to fiber tract integrity, we predefined 11 major association tracts and calculated tract specific fractional anisotropy (FA) values. Eighty-five patients with AD underwent neurobehavioral assessments including the minimental state examination (MMSE) and 12-item neuropsychiatric inventory twice with a 1.5-year interval to represent major outcome factors. In the cross-sectional data, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, vitamin B12, and homocysteine levels correlated variably with WM FA values. After entering the biomarkers and WM FA into a regression model to predict neurobehavioral outcomes, only fiber tract FA or homocysteine level predicted the MMSE score, and fiber tract FA or age predicted the neuropsychiatric inventory total scores and subdomains of apathy, disinhibition, and aberrant motor behavior. In the follow-up neurobehavioral data, the mean global FA value predicted the MMSE and aberrant motor behavior subdomain, while age predicted the anxiety and elation subdomains. Cerebrovascular risk biomarkers may modify WM microstructural organization, while the association with fiber integrity showed greater clinical significance to the prediction of neurobehavioral outcomes both cross-sectionally and longitudinally.

A Risk-Benefit Assessment of Dementia Medications: Systematic Review of the Evidence

There is no cure for dementia, and no treatments exist to halt or reverse the course of the disease. Treatments are aimed at improving cognitive and functional outcomes. Our objective was to review the basis of pharmacological treatments for dementia and to summarize the benefits and risks of dementia treatments. We performed a systematic literature search of MEDLINE through November 2014, for English-language trials and observational studies on treatment of dementia and mild cognitive impairment. Additional references were identified by searching bibliographies of relevant publications. Whenever possible, pooled data from meta-analyses or systematic reviews were obtained. Studies were included for review if they were randomized trials or observational studies on dementia or mild cognitive impairment that evaluated efficacy outcomes or adverse outcomes associated with treatment. Studies were excluded if they evaluated non-FDA approved treatments, or if they evaluated treatment in disorders other than dementia and mild cognitive impairment. The literature search found 540 potentially relevant studies, of which 257 were included in the systematic review. In pooled trial data, cholinesterase inhibitors (ChEIs) produce small improvements in cognitive, functional, and global benefits in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer's and Lewy body dementia, but the clinical significance of these effects are unclear. There is no significant benefit seen for vascular dementia. The efficacy of ChEI treatment appears to wane over time, with minimal benefit seen after 1 year. There is no evidence for benefit for those with advanced disease or those aged over 85 years. Adverse effects are significantly increased with ChEIs, in a dose-dependent manner. A two- to fivefold increased risk for gastrointestinal, neurological, and cardiovascular side effects is related to cholinergic stimulation, the most serious being weight loss, debility, and syncope. Those aged over 85 years have double the risk of adverse events compared with younger patients. Memantine monotherapy may provide some cognitive benefit for patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer's and vascular dementia, but the benefit is small and may wane over the course of several months. Memantine exhibits no significant benefit in mild dementia or Lewy body dementia or as an add-on treatment with ChEIs. Memantine has a relatively favorable side-effect profile, at least under controlled trial conditions. ChEIs produce small, short-lived improvements in cognitive function in mild to moderate dementia, which may not translate into clinically meaningful effects. Marginal benefits are seen with severe disease, long-term treatment, and advanced age. Cholinergic side effects, including weight loss, debility, and syncope, are clinically significant and could be especially detrimental in the frail elderly population, in which the risks of treatment outweigh the benefits. Memantine monotherapy may have minimal benefits in moderate to severe dementia, balanced by minimal adverse effects.

Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor modifications: a promising strategy to delay the progression of Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a fatal, progressive, neurodegenerative disorder, is the most common cause of old-age dementia, accounting for 50–75% of dementia patients. Early stages of AD are marked by vocabulary shrinkage, spatial disorientation, depression, apraxia, and deterioration of recent forms of declarative memory. In course of time, the patients require close supervision due to the loss of cognitive and functional abilities, and at the terminal stages of the disease, all forms of memory are severely impaired with the patients needing nursing home care (World Alzheimer Report, 2013).