Capital Structure Model Research Articles

A study on the capital structure determinants of FMCG companies in India

Fast Moving Consumers Goods (FMCG) sector is the fastest and the fourth largest sector of the Indian economy. This study attempts to identify the critical factors affecting the financing decisions of 15 FMCG companies using panel framework and tries to investigate whether the factors considered provide convincing explanation as per the capital structure models like peking order theory, trade-off theory and Agency theory developed over a period of time. The data are collected from CMIE Prowess database for the period 2008 to 2019. The variables considered are profitability, size, non-debt tax shield, tangibility, uniqueness, liquidity and origin. It is found that Pooled OLS is the appropriate model for explaining the factors influencing the short-term debt, long-term debt and total debt as the dependent variables. It is evident that the short-term debt of the company is influenced by profitability, non-debt tax shield and liquidity of the company; the long-term debt is influenced by profitability, tangibility and origin of the company; and the total debt is affected by profitability, size and liquidity of the company. The factors which are significant confirm to the expected behavior with respect to pecking order theory of capital structure.

Capital structure and the optimal payment methods in acquisitions

Based on a trade-off model of capital structure with immediate liquidation, and infinite debt maturity, we analyze the impact of prior-to-acquisition leverage levels on the optimal payment method used in an acquisition. Consistent with existing empirical studies, our model optimally yields three payment methods: Full cash, full equity, and a mix of cash and equity. The optimal level of cash in the transaction stems from the interplay between the magnitude of leverage deficit of one or both firms and the scale of synergies, in particular financial, that can be reaped from the acquisition. Finally, we emphasize the key role played by the capital structure of the target firm.

Nonprofits and Pass-Throughs: Performance Comparison

This paper’s purpose is to compare nonprofits with pass-throughs in terms of valuation, leverage, and growth. To achieve this purpose, we use the Capital Structure Model. This model determines maximum firm valuation through incorporating real data (tax rates, credit spreads, and historical growth rates). Since this is the first study to offer our particular set results on valuation, leverage and growth, our findings are value-additive in terms of the comparative research on nonprofits and pass-throughs. The new and scientific value of our findings are further established by robust tests that modify values for key variables. Major findings include the following. Nonprofits have over a fifty percent valuation advantage over pass-throughs and achieve a four times greater increase in dollar value when going from nongrowth to growth. The latter accomplishments are attained with a smaller before-tax plowback ratio and less retained earnings. Such achievements occur because nonprofits are not taxed on earnings retained for growth. While nonprofits have somewhat greater optimal leverage ratios than pass-throughs, they gain a bit less in dollars added from debt unless growth rates increase as projected when tax rates are lowered. Nonprofits gain less percentage-wise from debt because their unlevered firm value is greater than pass-throughs.

Do Capital Structure Models Square with the Dynamics of Payout?

We explore whether theoretically the target leverage and pecking order models can be reconciled with payout smoothing. Investment absorbs a significant part of income and asset volatility if the firm follows both a payout target and a net debt ratio (NDR) target. A positive (negative) NDR amplifies (dampens) shocks in assets. Slow adjustment towards the NDR target facilitates payout smoothing. Under strict pecking order financing, income shocks are absorbed primarily by changes in net debt. More payout smoothing implies a stronger negative relation between debt and net income. Shocks to assets in place need not affect current payout.

Leverage and Cash Dynamics

This paper documents new and empirically important interactions between cash-balance and leverage dynamics. Cash ratios typically vary widely over extended horizons, with dynamics remarkably similar to (and complementary with) those of capital structure. Leverage and cash dynamics interact approximately as predicted by the internal-versus-external funding regimes in Myers and Majluf (1984). Leverage is quite volatile when cash ratios are stable and vice-versa, while net-debt ratios are almost always volatile. Most firms increase leverage sharply as cash balances (internal funds) become scarce. Capital structure models that extend Hennessy and Whited (2005) to include cash-balance dynamics explain some, but not all, aspects of the observed relation between cash squeezes and leverage increases.

Deciphering Private Equity Incentive Contracting and Fund Leverage Choice

I explain the standard carried interest contract as a mechanism to induce incentive compatible fund leverage while also satisfying LP return objectives. Fee, leverage and target return data from private equity real estate (PERE) funds are used to calibrate the model. Steps in the modeling process include developing a tradeoff model of fund capital structure that pits alpha against the costs of financial distress. Financial distress costs are shown to create endogenous upper bounds on fund debt levels. GPs with convex incentive fee payoff functions limit debt, even in the absence of distress costs. I also analyze how catch-up fee provisions arise endogenously to generate larger fees for high-skill fund managers.

Determinants of SMEs Capital Structure: Evidence from Literature

The purpose of this study is to provide a big-picture literature review on determinants of the capital structure of SMEs. This study is, therefore, an attempt to synthesize the literature findings on the determinants of the capital structure of SMEs. It further tries to explore the determinant's consistency with various theoretical models of capital structure and tries to find out best explaining theoretical model to the capital structure of SMEs. Content analysis is used for the available literature to streamline various related theories and to identify the research gap in the said area. Literature review shows the predominance of capital structure studies in developed countries and evidence that most of the studies are based on empirical data and used firm-specific variables and provide less on the industry, product, and country-specific variables. A regression-based model has been used to find the determinants of capital structure among SMEs

The Capital Structure Puzzle: What are We Missing?

An important piece of the capital structure puzzle has been missing, and it is not a contracting friction. It is recognition that managers do not have sufficient knowledge to optimize capital structure with any real precision. The literature critique in this paper (i) identifies the conceptual sources of the main empirical failures of the leading models of capital structure and (ii) shows how those failures can be repaired by taking into account imperfect managerial knowledge and several other factors. The analysis yields a compact set of principles for thinking about capital structure in an empirically supported way.

МЕТОДИЧНИЙ ПІДХІД ДО ОРГАНІЗАЦІЇ МОНІТОРИНГУ СТРУКТУРИ КАПІТАЛУ ПІДПРИЄМСТВА

The aim of the article is to develop a methodological approach to building a capital structure monitoring based on updating the information base. In modern conditions of complicated economic processes, accelerating market variability, intensifying digitalization processes, the importance of developing and implementing modern management tools to adapt the economic system to unstable economic conditions, successful and long-term effective development, increasing competitive status. Building economic relations in the context of digitalization of the economy requires fundamentally new approaches to solving the problem of adequacy of resources to ensure the functioning of economic entities. After analyzing the contribution of domestic and foreign scholars studying the structure of capital structure optimization and its impact on the financial condition of the enterprise, a set of cyclicals continuously performed actions for monitoring capital structure was developed and a structural-logical scheme was built with the help of SADT-technologies in the Miro environment. The identification of the components of capital is carried out considering the latest forms – human consumer and structural capital. Through logical, monographic and correlation analysis, a system of indicators that affect the capital structure of enterprises is formed. After building a system of initial characteristics of the capital structure of the enterprise at the previous stage and their rationing, it is proposed to conduct a preliminary analysis of data on the existence of gross errors and compliance with the normal distribution law and remove indicators that correlate. The use of factor analysis allowed to limit and clarify the composition of indicators that characterize the formation and use of capital of a certain structure in a rapidly turbulent market environment. Comparative analysis of capital structure and performance of competitors with competitors, risk assessment of a particular capital structure allowed to move to the last stages, namely, to build a model of capital structure with financial perfor mance of the enterprise by simulation, regression analysis, and to implement proactivity and strategic direction monitoring the capital structure to carry out its forecasting.

Effects of Positive Jumps of Assets on Endogenous Bankruptcy and Optimal Capital Structure: Continuous- and Periodic-Observation Models

In this paper, we study the optimal capital structure model with endogenous bankruptcy when the firm's asset value follows an exponential Levy process with positive jumps. In the Leland--Toft frame...

Price Rigidities and Credit Risk

We develop a capital structure model in which firms feature differential flexibility in adjusting output prices to shocks. Inflexible-price firms have lower profits and higher cash-flow volatility, leading in equilibrium to lower financial leverage, shorter debt duration, higher cost of debt, more stringent debt covenants, and higher precautionary cash holdings. Moreover, a cash-flow volatility shock increases the cost of debt more for inflexible-price firms. We confirm these predictions empirically and exploit the 2008 Lehman Brothers bankruptcy to show that inflexible-price firms with higher pre-shock rollover risk exposure experience a significantly larger increase in credit spreads following the event than other firms.

Bank Regulation and Market Discipline in the Presence of Risk-Shifting Incentives

This paper presents a bank capital structure model in which equity holders can increase asset risk once debt is in place. I study the effects of capital requirements and subsidized deposit insurance on the bank's privately optimal funding and operational risk level. The model predicts that there are synergetic effects of regulation and market discipline. When the regulator sets the capital charge and deposit insurance premium payments sufficiently high for a risky portfolio, the bank commits to the low-risk asset portfolio by setting a lower leverage ratio. This market discipline effect disappears when the regulatory costs become too high.

Determinan Struktur Modal dan Nilai Perusahaan

The purpose of this study is to formulate a determinant model of capital structure and firm value. The population of this study is the tourism industry sector companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange for the period 2013-2018. In this study the entire population is sampled (Total Sampling). Data collection procedures by collecting audited (annual report) financial report data issued by the Indonesia Capital Market Directory (ICMD). The data analysis technique used is path analysis. The results showed that partially profitability, institutional ownership and firm size had a significant effect on capital structure while company growth had no significant effect on capital structure. Simultaneously the profitability variables, institutional ownership, company growth and company size affect the capital structure. Partially profitability, institutional ownership, company size and capital structure have a significant effect on firm value, while company growth does not significantly influence firm value Simultaneously profitability, Institutional ownership, company size, company growth and capital structure have a significant effect on company value in the sector tourism industry.

Agency Conflicts and Investment: Evidence from a Structural Estimation

We develop a dynamic capital structure model to study how manager-shareholders agency conflicts affect the joint determination of financing and investment decisions. We show that the consumption of private benefits channel leads managers not only to choose a lower optimal leverage, but also to underinvest. We fit the model to the data and show that the average firm underinvests, younger CEOs underinvest less than older ones and firms with low institutional ownership underinvest less than those with high institutional ownership. Firms with compensation that is more closely related to the company's size exhibit overinvestment.

Marking to Market Corporate Debt

Models of capital structure and credit risk make predictions about market valuations of debt, but are routinely tested on the basis of book debt from common data sources. In this paper, we propose to close this gap. We construct a rich data set on firm level debt market valuations by carefully matching data on corporate bond and loan secondary market transactions. We document significant discrepancies between market and book values, especially for distressed firms. We use our dataset to i) provide novel rules of thumb on how to adjust leverage and unlever returns using standard datasets, and ii) to revisit a number of prominent empirical patterns involving corporate debt. Using a market-based measure of Tobin's Q, we find little evidence for investment cash-flow sensitivity in our data. We find that using market debt values significantly improves default prediction, and do not detect a credit spread puzzle. In asset pricing tests, we find a leverage premium, but no evidence for a value premium after controlling for market leverage. Moreover, a novel measure of financial distress, namely market-to-book debt, predicts stock returns positively in the cross-section, inconsistent with a financial distress puzzle.

Systematic risk, debt maturity, and the term structure of credit spreads

We document several facts about corporate debt maturity: (1) debt maturity is pro-cyclical, (2) higher-beta firms tend to have longer maturity, and (3) shorter maturity amplifies the sensitivity of credit spreads to aggregate shocks. We present a dynamic capital structure model that explains these facts. In the model, leverage and maturity choices are interdependent, which reflect the tradeoffs of liquidity discounts of long-term debt, repayment risks of short-term debt, and the benefit of short-term debt as a commitment device for timely leverage adjustments. Additionally, the model helps quantify the effects of maturity dynamics on the term structure of credit spreads.

A Multi-Factor Model of Idiosyncratic Volatility

Time-varying leverage driven by common shocks to firm asset returns introduces a factor structure in idiosyncratic equity return volatilities (IVOL). In a standard dynamic capital structure model in which the CAPM holds for asset returns, we show that three factors explain the IVOL cross-section: the average IVOL mainly captures market-wide leverage dynamics, and a size factor and a leverage-driven factor account for the time-varying dispersion. Just like equity IVOL, debt return IVOL shows a strong factor structure and the two are strongly correlated. Our findings also shed light on the negative IVOL-return puzzle and the time-series pattern of average IVOL.

Reliable and Advanced Predictors for Corporate Financial Choices in Pakistan

Existing studies disagree over the core predictors of firm-level financial choices in developing countries. The general practice only validates the traditional capital structure model, which leads to inconsistency and a lack of novelty. This study removed overfitting issues among existing factors and presented the most reliable and advanced capital structure model in Pakistani firms. The panel data include 368 Pakistani companies from 19 non-financial sectors over the period 2004 to 2017. We apply Akaike and Bayesian Information Criteria to remove overfitting issues among inconsistent proxies in the capital structure model. The fixed effects regression is used for basic results and the Generalized Method of Moments is applied to control the endogeneity. Besides the conventional proxies, we report that credit rating, distance from bankruptcy, managerial concentration, and institutional quality are the most advanced capital structure determinants in Pakistan. These predictors remain significant across firm size and growth levels. Also, the findings confirm that new predictors are reliable to define capital structure dynamics and improve the speed of adjustment in overall and sub-sample analysis. The major findings suggest that managers and policymakers should consider these advanced predictors to design their financial settings in firms.

The Leland\u2013Toft optimal capital structure model under Poisson observations

This paper revisits the optimal capital structure model with endogenous bankruptcy, first studied by Leland (J. Finance 49:1213–1252, 1994) and Leland and Toft (J. Finance 51:987–1019, 1996). Unlike in the standard case where shareholders continuously observe the asset value and bankruptcy is executed instantaneously without delay, the information of the asset value is assumed to be updated periodically at the jump times of an independent Poisson process. Under a spectrally negative Lévy model, we obtain the optimal bankruptcy strategy and the corresponding capital structure. A series of numerical studies provide an analysis of the sensitivity, with respect to the observation frequency, of the optimal strategies, optimal leverage and credit spreads.

Credit ratings and firm value

A topic of relevance to financial managers is the relation between a credit rating and firm value (VL). The general aim of this paper is to elucidate this relation with a specific objective of helping C corp managers choose an optimal target rating (OTR). To achieve these goals, we use the Capital Structure Model (CSM) to compute a series of firm value (VL) outcomes matched to credit ratings. The maximum VL (max VL), among all VL outcomes, identifies OTR. This identification begins with the matching of credit spreads and ratings by Damodaran (2019) for three firm categories: small, large, and financial service (FS). Given these spreads, we can compute costs of borrowing with these costs needed to compute VL and other numerical outcomes. Besides costs of borrowing, our numerical outcomes are based on other key inputs including US $1,000,000 in before-tax cash flows, C corp tax rates, and a sustainable growth rate. Major findings that guide managers include the following. First, Moody’s A3 is the most common OTR. Second, growth firms generally require higher ranked OTRs. Third, compared to small and large firms, FS firms attain greater max VL values, higher optimal debt-to-firm value ratios (ODVs), and generally lower ranked OTRs. Fourth, relative to small firms, large firms gain less from growth even though they attain greater max VL outcomes. Fifth, only for FS firms can we find outcomes where operational cash flows are better spent on interest payments than retained internally for growth.