Stem Cell Model Research Articles

Development and characterization of in vitro inducible immortalization of a murine microglia cell line for high throughput studies

There are few in vitro models available to study microglial physiology in a homeostatic context. Recent approaches include the human induced pluripotent stem cell model, but these can be challenging for large-scale assays and may lead to batch variability. To advance our understanding of microglial biology while enabling scalability for high-throughput assays, we developed an inducible immortalized murine microglial cell line using a tetracycline expression system. The addition of doxycycline facilitates rapid cell proliferation, allowing for population expansion. Upon withdrawal of doxycycline, this monoclonal microglial cell line differentiates, resembling in vivo microglial physiology as demonstrated by the expression of microglial genes, innate immune responses, chemotaxis, and phagocytic abilities. We utilized live imaging and various molecular techniques to functionally characterize the clonal 2E11murine microglial cell line. Transcriptomic analysis showed that the 2E11 line exhibited characteristics of immature, proliferative microglia during doxycycline induction, and further differentiation led to a more homeostatic phenotype. Treatment with transforming growth factor-β modified the transcriptome of the 2E11 cell line, affecting cellular immune pathways. Our findings indicate that the 2E11 inducible immortalized cell line is a practical and convenient tool for studying microglial biology in vitro.

ANKRD11 binding to cohesin suggests a connection between KBG syndrome and Cornelia de Lange syndrome

Ankyrin Repeat Domain-containing Protein 11 (ANKRD11) is a causative gene for KBG syndrome, a significant risk factor for Cornelia de Lange syndrome (CdLS), and a highly confident autism spectrum disorder gene. Mutations of ANKRD11 lead to developmental abnormalities in multiple organs/tissues including the brain, craniofacial and skeletal bones, and tooth structures with unknown mechanism(s). Here, we find that ANKRD11, via a short peptide fragment in its N-terminal region, binds to the cohesin complex with a high affinity, implicating why ANKRD11 mutation can cause CdLS. The crystal structure of the ANKRD11 peptide in complex with cohesin, together with biochemical experiments, revealed that ANKRD11 competes with CCCTC-binding factor in binding to the cohesin complex. Importantly, a single point mutation in ANKRD11 (Tyr347 to Ala) specifically disrupted the interaction between ANKRD11 and cohesin and perturbed gene expressions in a mouse embryonic stem cell model. Mice carrying the ANKRD11 Y347A mutation display neural and craniofacial anomalies, which mirror clinical phenotypes observed in KBG syndrome patients. Thus, our study reveals how ANKRD11 functions together with cohesin to regulate gene expression and also provides insights into the molecular mechanisms underpinning developmental disorders caused by ANKRD11 mutations.

Molecular Regulation of Cardiomyocyte Maturation.

This review aims to discuss the process of cardiomyocyte maturation, with a focus on the underlying molecular mechanisms required to form a fully functional heart. We examine both long-standing concepts associated with cardiac maturation and recent developments, and the overall complexity of molecularly integrating all the processes that lead to a mature heart. Cardiac maturation, defined here as the sequential changes that occurring before the heart reaches full maturity, has been a subject of investigation for decades. Recently, there has been a renewed, highly focused interest in this process, driven by clinically motivated research areas where enhancing maturation may lead to improved therapeutic opportunities. These include using pluripotent stem cell models for cell therapy and disease modeling, as well as recent advancements in adult cardiac regeneration approaches. We highlight key processes underlying maturation of the heart, including cellular and organ growth, and electrophysiological, metabolic, and contractile maturation. We further discuss how these processes integrate and interact to contribute to the overall complexity of the developing heart. Finally, we emphasize the transformative potential for translating relevant maturation concepts to emerging models of heart disease and regeneration.

Chromosome number alterations cause apoptosis and cellular hypertrophy in induced pluripotent stem cell models of embryonic epiblast cells.

Chromosomal aneuploidies are a major cause of developmental failure and pregnancy loss. To investigate the possible consequences of aneuploidy on early embryonic development in vitro, we focused on primed pluripotent stem cells that are relatable to the epiblast of post-implantation embryos in vivo. We used human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) as an epiblast model and altered chromosome numbers by treating with reversine, a small-molecule inhibitor of monopolar spindle 1 kinase (MSP1) that inactivates the spindle assembly checkpoint, which has been strongly implicated in chromosome mis-segregation and aneuploidy generation. Upon reversine treatment, we obtained cells with varied chromosomal content that retained pluripotency and potential to differentiate into cells of three germ lineages. However, these cells displayed lagging chromosomes, increased micronuclei content, high p53 expression and excessive apoptotic activity. Cell proliferation was not affected. Prolonged in vitro culture of these cells resulted in a selective pool of cells with supernumerary chromosomes, which exhibited cellular hypertrophy, enlarged nuclei, and overproduction of total RNAs and proteins. We conclude that increased DNA damage responses, apoptosis, and improper cellular mass and functions are possible mechanisms that contribute to abnormal epiblast development.

Using cortical organoids to understand the pathogenesis of malformations of cortical development.

Malformations of cortical development encompass a broad range of disorders associated with abnormalities in corticogenesis. Widespread abnormalities in neuronal formation or migration can lead to small head size or microcephaly with disorganized placement of cell types. Specific, localized malformations are termed focal cortical dysplasias (FCD). Neurodevelopmental disorders are common in all types of malformations of cortical development with the most prominent being refractory epilepsy, behavioral disorders such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and learning disorders. Several genetic pathways have been associated with these disorders from control of cell cycle and cytoskeletal dynamics in global malformations to variants in growth factor signaling pathways, especially those interacting with the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR), in FCDs. Despite advances in understanding these disorders, the underlying developmental pathways that lead to lesion formation and mechanisms through which defects in cortical development cause specific neurological symptoms often remains unclear. One limitation is the difficulty in modeling these disorders, as animal models frequently do not faithfully mirror the human phenotype. To circumvent this obstacle, many investigators have turned to three-dimensional human stem cell models of the brain, known as organoids, because they recapitulate early neurodevelopmental processes. High throughput analysis of these organoids presents a promising opportunity to model pathophysiological processes across the breadth of malformations of cortical development. In this review, we highlight advances in understanding the pathophysiology of brain malformations using organoid models.

MLC1 alteration in iPSCs give rise to disease-like cellular vacuolation phenotype in the astrocyte lineage.

Megalencephalic leukoencephalopathy with subcortical cysts (MLC), a rare and progressive neurodegenerative disorder involving the white matter, is not adequately recapitulated by current disease models. Somatic cell reprogramming, along with advancements in genome engineering, may allow the establishment of in-vitro human models of MLC for disease modeling and drug screening. In this study, we utilized cellular reprogramming and gene-editing techniques to develop induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) models of MLC to recapitulate the cellular context of the classical MLC-impacted nervous system. Somatic cell reprogramming of peripheral patient-derived blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was used to develop iPSC models of MLC. CRISPR-Cas9 system-based genome engineering was also utilized to create the MLC1 knockout model of the disease. Directed differentiation of iPSCs to neural stem cells (NSCs) and astrocytes was performed in a 2D cell culture format, followed by various cellular and molecular biology approaches, to characterize the disease model. MLC iPSCs established by somatic cell reprogramming and genome engineering were well characterized for pluripotency. iPSCs were subsequently differentiated to disease-relevant cell types: neural stem cells (NSCs) and astrocytes. RNA sequencing profiling of MLC NSCs revealed a set of differentially expressed genes related to neurological disorders and epilepsy, a common clinical finding within MLC disease. This gene set can serve as a target for drug screening for the development of a potential therapeutic for this disease. Upon differentiation to the more disease relevant cell type-astrocytes, MLC-characteristic vacuoles were clearly observed, which were distinctly absent from controls. This emergence recapitulated a distinguishing phenotypic marker of the disease. Through the creation and analyses of iPSC models of MLC, our work addresses a critical need for relevant cellular models of MLC for use in both disease modeling and drug screening assays. Further investigation can utilize MLC iPSC models, as well as generated transcriptomic data sets and analyses, to identify potential therapeutic interventions for this debilitating disease.

Single-Cell Heterogeneity of EGFR Pathway Is Linked to Unique Signatures of Drug Response and Malignancy in Patient Derived Glioblastoma Stem Cells.

In glioblastoma, the therapeutically intractable and resistant phenotypes can be derived from glioma stem cells, which often have different underlying mechanisms from non-stem glioma cells. Aberrant signaling across the EGFR-PTEN-AKT-mTOR pathways have been shown as common drivers of glioblastoma. Revealing the inter and intra-cellular heterogeneity within glioma stem cell populations in relations to signaling patterns through these pathways may be key to precision diagnostic and therapeutic targeting of these cells. Single cell parallel proteomic heterogeneity profiling of the EGFR-PTEN-AKT-mTOR pathways was conducted in a panel of fifteen glioma stem cell models derived from patient glioblastoma biopsies. The analysis included 59,464 data points from 14,866 cells and identified forty-nine molecularly distinct signaling phenotypes. High content bioinformatics resolved two unique patient clusters diverging on EGFR expression and AKT/TORC1 activation. Phenotypic validation indicated drug responsive phenotypes to EGFR blocking in the high EGFR expressing cluster with lower tumor initiating potential in comparison to the AKT/TORC1 activated cluster. High EGFR expression trended with improved patient prognosis while AKT/TORC1 activated samples trended with poorer patient outcomes. Genetic heterogeneity was observed in both clusters with proneural, classical and mesenchymal subtypes observed. Quantitative single cell heterogeneity profiling reveals divergent EGFR-PTEN-AKT-mTOR pathways of patient derived glioma stem cells, which would inform future research and personalized therapeutic strategies.

Human stem cell models for Marfan syndrome: a brief overview of the rising star in disease modelling.

The introduction of pluripotent stem cells into the field of disease modelling resulted in numerous opportunities to study and uncover disease mechanisms in a petri dish. This promising avenue has also been applied to model Marfan syndrome, a disease affecting multiple organ systems, including the skeletal and cardiovascular system. Marfan syndrome is caused by pathogenic variants in FBN1, the gene encoding for the extracellular matrix protein fibrillin-1 which ensembles into microfibrils. There is a poor genotype-phenotype correlation displayed by the diverse clinical manifestations of this disease in patients. Up to now, 52 different human pluripotent stem cells lines have been established and reported for Marfan syndrome. These stem cells have been employed to model aortopathy, skeletal abnormalities and cardiomyopathy in vitro. These models were able to recapitulate key features of the disease that are also observed in patients. The use of pluripotent stem cells will help to uncover disease mechanisms and to identify new therapeutic strategies in Marfan syndrome.

Brain aging and rejuvenation at single-cell resolution.

Brain aging leads to a decline in cognitive function and a concomitant increase in the susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. A key question is how changes within individual cells of the brain give rise to age-related dysfunction. Developments in single-cell "omics" technologies, such as single-cell transcriptomics, have facilitated high-dimensional profiling of individual cells. These technologies have led to new and comprehensive characterizations of brain aging at single-cell resolution. Here, we review insights gleaned from single-cell omics studies of brain aging, starting with a cell-type-centric overview of age-associated changes and followed by a discussion of cell-cell interactions during aging. We highlight how single-cell omics studies provide an unbiased view of different rejuvenation interventions and comment on the promise of combinatorial rejuvenation approaches for the brain. Finally, we propose new directions, including models of brain aging and neural stem cells as a focal point for rejuvenation.

Morphological Characteristics and Extracellular Matrix Abnormalities in Astrocytes Derived From iPSCs of Children With Alexander Disease.

Alexander disease (AxD) is a leukodystrophy caused by mutations in the astrocytic filament gene GFAP. There are currently no effective treatments for AxD. Previous studies have rarely established AxD models with the patient's original GFAP mutations. In this study, we aimed to explore the morphological and transcriptomic characteristics of GFAP-mutant astrocytes via induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) models of AxD. Fibroblasts from three AxD children were reprogrammed into iPSCs. Wild-type (WT) and AxD-iPSCs were differentiated into astrocytes. We compared the morphological and transcriptomic differences between WT- and AxD iPSC-derived astrocytes. Astrocytes induced from AxD-derived iPSCs exhibited the Rosenthal fibers (RFs), the main pathological phenotype of AxD. Compared with WT astrocytes, AxD astrocytes had shorter processes, more branches, and larger cell bodies. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that extracellular matrix (ECM) components, particularly chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), were upregulated, and ECM-degrading enzymes were generally downregulated. These changes may lead to abnormalities in neurons and myelination. We explored the morphological characteristics of AxD astrocytes via iPSC models and revealed the ECM, previously unexplored for AxD, may be an important new pathogenic mechanism of this disease.

G6PD deficiency triggers dopamine loss and the initiation of Parkinson's disease pathogenesis.

Loss of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD) is preceded by loss of synaptic dopamine (DA) and accumulation of proteinaceous aggregates. Linking these deficits is critical to restoring DA signaling in PD. Using murine and human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC) models of PD coupled with human postmortem tissue, we show that accumulation of α-syn micro-aggregates impairs metabolic flux through the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP). This leads to decreased nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP/H) and glutathione (GSH) levels, resulting in DA oxidation and decreased total DA levels. We find that α-syn anchors the PPP enzyme G6PD to synaptic vesicles via the α-syn C terminus and that this interaction is lost in PD. Furthermore, G6PD clinical mutations are associated with PD diagnosis, and G6PD deletion phenocopies PD pathology. Finally, we show that restoring NADPH or GSH levels through genetic and pharmacological intervention blocks DA oxidation and rescues steady-state DA levels, identifying G6PD as a pharmacological target against PD.

Straight to the heart: Protecting the patient’s heart during chemotherapy

How do we protect the heart during chemotherapy with the anthracycline drug class? Tackling this question, Liu etal. combined pluripotent stem cell models, CRISPR genetic screens, and molecular modeling to identify indisulam as a potential cardioprotective drug in this issue of Cell Stem Cell.

Optimized prime editing of the Alzheimer's disease-associated APOE4 mutation.

Gene editing strategies to safely and robustly modify the Alzheimer's disease-associated APOE4 isoform are still lacking. Prime editing (PE) enables the precise introduction of genetic variants with minimal unintended editing and without donor templates. However, it requires optimization for each target site and has not yet been applied to APOE4 gene editing. Here, we screened PE guide RNA (pegRNA) parameters and PE systems for introducing the APOE4 variant and applied the optimized PE strategy to generate disease-relevant human induced pluripotent stem cell models. We show that introducing a single-nucleotide difference required for APOE4 correction inhibits PE activity. To advance efficient and robust genome engineering of precise genetic variants, we further present a reliable PE enrichment strategy based on diphtheria toxin co-selection. Our work provides an optimized and reproducible genome engineering pipeline to generate APOE4 disease models and outlines novel strategies to accelerate genome editing in cellular disease model generation.

Modeling and correction of protein conformational disease in iPSC-derived neurons through personalized base editing.

Altered protein conformation can cause incurable neurodegenerative disorders. Mutations in SERPINI1, the gene encoding neuroserpin, can alter protein conformation resulting in cytotoxic aggregation leading to neuronal death. Familial encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies (FENIB) is a rare autosomal dominant progressive myoclonic epilepsy that progresses to dementia and premature death. We developed HEK293T and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) models of FENIB, harboring a patient-specific pathogenic SERPINI1 variant or stably overexpressing mutant neuroserpin fused to GFP (MUT NS-GFP). Here, we utilized a personalized adenine base editor (ABE)-mediated approach to correct the pathogenic variant efficiently and precisely to restore neuronal dendritic morphology. ABE-treated MUT NS-GFP cells demonstrated reduced inclusion size and number. Using an inducible MUT NS-GFP neuron system, we identified early prevention of toxic protein expression allowed aggregate clearance, while late prevention halted further aggregation. To address several challenges for clinical applications of gene correction, we developed a neuron-specific engineered virus-like particle to optimize neuronal ABE delivery, resulting in higher correction efficiency. Our findings provide a targeted strategy that may treat FENIB and potentially other neurodegenerative diseases due to altered protein conformation such as Alzheimer's and Huntington's diseases.

Total cell N-glycosylation is altered during differentiation of induced pluripotent stem cells to neural stem cells and is disturbed by trisomy 21.

Down syndrome (DS), a genetic condition caused by trisomy 21 (T21), manifests various neurological symptoms, including intellectual disability, early neurodegeneration, and early-onset dementia. N-glycosylation is a protein modification that plays a critical role in numerous neurobiological processes and whose dysregulation is associated with a range of neurological disorders. However, whether N-glycosylation of neural glycoproteins is affected in DS has not been studied. To better understand how T21 affects N-glycosylation during neural differentiation, we utilized an isogenic in vitro induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) model of T21 in which both T21 and euploid disomic karyotype (D21) clones were obtained from a single individual with mosaic DS. We comprehensively characterized and compared the total N-glycomes of iPSCs and their neural stem cell (NSC) derivatives. N-glycomics analysis of whole cell lysates was performed using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry to determine N-glycan structures. Our results show that neural differentiation of iPSCs to NSCs is characterized by an increase in the abundance of complex N-glycans at the expense of minimally processed mannosidic N-glycans. Moreover, we found differences in N-glycosylation patterns between D21 and T21 cells. Notably, the abundance of pseudohybrid N-glycans was significantly higher in T21 cells which also exhibited a significantly lower abundance of a specific hybrid monoantennary fucosylated N-glycan (H6N3F1). Overall, our data define the total N-glycome of both D21 and T21 iPSCs and NSCs and show that T21 already impacts N-glycosylation patterns in the stem cell state in a manner consistent with aberrantly premature neural differentiation of T21 cells.

Autophagy Deficits Underly Selective Neuronal Vulnerability to Alpha Synuclein Fibrils in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s iPSC Derived Neurons

AbstractBackgroundAlzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) feature progressive neurodegeneration in a remarkably regionally selective manner. Post mortem studies have posited a role for cell autonomous mechanisms driving this, so we aimed to examine a live human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) model to see whether it can replicate the phenomenon of selective neuronal vulnerability, so to better determine disease mechanisms and therapeutic targets.MethodiPSC‐derived neurons offer a rare opportunity to examine cell autonomous vulnerability in live human cells. iPSCs from patients with AD‐related presenilin‐1 mutations (n = 6), PD‐related leucine rich repeat kinase 2 mutations (n = 6), and isogenic corrected (n = 4) and healthy controls (n = 4) have been differentiated into both cortical and midbrain dopaminergic neurons to enable comparison of pre‐formed fibril induced pathology in different neuronal subtypes from the same patient. We then examined lysosomal number, morphology, degradation, pH, and calcium using live imaging assays, alongside mitochondrial biology, and electrophysiology to understand underlying drivers of vulnerability in the cell types.ResultUpon insult with alpha‐synuclein PFFs, AD and PD dopaminergic neurons produce substantial Lewy‐like pathology, whereas cortical neurons remain relatively resilient to alpha‐synuclein aggregation, suggesting cell‐type vulnerability. PSEN1‐Intron‐4‐Deletion cortical neurons, however, had significantly elevated pathology. These lines displayed hyperactivity on microelectrode arrays and abnormal lysosomal biology, including increased LAMP1 and dysregulated calcium. PFF‐insulted AD cortical neurons also have impaired neurite outgrowth, while PD cortical neurons are resilient.ConclusionThese preliminary results show relative vulnerability of AD against PD cortical neurons, and dopaminergic against cortical neurons to alpha‐synuclein aggregates for the first time. These suggest the selective vulnerability to proteinopathy in these diseases is reflected by the iPSC neuronal model and support the notion that cell intrinsic factors like autophagy drive vulnerability.

In vitro model of Reconstructed Human Corneal Epithelium for the evaluation of ocular surface desiccation and protection with Vitamin A enriched ophthalmic ointment.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a paraffin ointment enriched with vitamin A in the protection against severe desiccation using 2D and 3D corneal epithelial in vitro models. We used immortalized human corneal epithelial cell cultures to evaluate the efficacy of four compounds -a paraffin ointment enriched with vitamin A (vA-PFF) and its vehicle; an aqueous gel containing hydroxypropyl guar (HPG); and an aqueous gel containing sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)- to preserve cell viability in an in vitro model of desiccation. WST-1 and Live/Dead assays were used to study cell viability. Protection against cell damage was evaluated using a tridimensional reconstructed human corneal epithelial stem cell model (QobuR-RhCE). Compared to CMC, the paraffin ointment produced a significant prosurvival effect and it was similar to hydroxypropyl guar (HPG). The effect of vA-PFF in the protection against cell damage in QobuR-RhCE was significantly higher than CMC and HPG.Our results suggested that reconstructed 3D human corneal epithelia are sensitive tools to evaluate the efficacy of topical formulations against chemical damage and severe desiccation, indicating that would be an alternative method to animal experimentation, valid to use in ocular drug screening. vA-PFF caused no toxicity to cells in culture and was effective against extreme desiccation and cell damage in in vitro 2 D and 3D models.

An ILK/STAT3 pathway controls glioblastoma stem cell plasticity.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is driven by malignant neural stem-like cells that display extensive heterogeneity and phenotypic plasticity, which drive tumor progression and therapeutic resistance. Here, we show that the extracellular matrix-cell adhesion protein integrin-linked kinase (ILK) stimulates phenotypic plasticity and mesenchymal-like, invasive behavior in a murine GBM stem cell model. ILK is required for the interconversion of GBM stem cells between malignancy-associated glial-like states, and its loss produces cells that are unresponsive to multiple cell state transition cues. We further show that an ILK/STAT3 signaling pathway controls the plasticity that enables transition of GBM stem cells to an astrocyte-like state invitro and invivo. Finally, we find that ILK expression correlates with expression of STAT3-regulated proteins and protein signatures describing astrocyte-like and mesenchymal states in patient tumors. This work identifies ILK as a pivotal regulator of multiple malignancy-associated GBM phenotypes, including phenotypic plasticity and mesenchymal state.

Current Status of Synthetic Mammalian Embryo Models.

Advances in three-dimensional culture technologies have facilitated the development of synthetic embryo models, such as blastoids, through the co-culturing of diverse stem cell types. These in vitro models enable precise investigation of developmental processes, including gastrulation, neurulation, and lineage specification, thereby advancing our understanding of early embryogenesis. By providing controllable, ethically viable platforms, they help circumvent the limitations of in vivo mammalian embryo studies and contribute to developing regenerative medicine strategies. Nonetheless, ethical challenges, particularly regarding human applications, persist. Comparative studies across various species-such as mice, humans, non-human primates, and ungulates, like pigs and cattle-offer crucial insights into both species-specific and conserved developmental mechanisms. In this review, we outline the species-specific differences in embryonic development and discuss recent advancements in stem cell and synthetic embryo models. Specifically, we focus on the latest stem cell research involving ungulates, such as pigs and cattle, and provide a comprehensive overview of the improvements in synthetic embryo technology. These insights contribute to our understanding of species-specific developmental biology, help improve model efficiency, and guide the development of new models.

Ascorbic Acid Ameliorates Molecular and Developmental Defects in Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell and Cerebral Organoid Models of Fragile X Syndrome.

Fragile X Syndrome (FX) is the most common form of inherited cognitive impairment and falls under the broader category of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). FX is caused by a CGG trinucleotide repeat expansion in the non-coding region of the X-linked Fragile X Messenger Ribonucleoprotein 1 (FMR1) gene, leading to its hypermethylation and epigenetic silencing. Animal models of FX rely on the deletion of the Fmr1 gene, which fails to replicate the epigenetic silencing mechanism of the FMR1 gene observed in human patients. Human stem cells carrying FX repeat expansions have provided a better understanding of the basis of epigenetic silencing of FMR1. Previous studies have found that 5-Azacytidine (5Azac) can reverse this methylation; however, 5Azac can be toxic, which may limit its therapeutic potential. Here, we show that the dietary factor Ascorbic Acid (AsA) can reduce DNA methylation in the FMR1 locus and lead to an increase in FMR1 gene expression in FX iPSCs and cerebral organoids. In addition, AsA treatment rescued neuronal gene expression and morphological defects observed in FX iPSC-derived cerebral organoids. Hence, we demonstrate that the dietary co-factor AsA can partially revert the molecular and morphological defects seen in human FX models in vitro. Our findings have implications for the development of novel therapies for FX in the future.