Arousal Model Research Articles

Harmonizing Emotion and Sound: A Novel Framework for Procedural Sound Generation Based on Emotional Dynamics

The present work proposes a novel framework for emotion-driven procedural sound generation, termed SONEEG. The framework merges emotional recognition with dynamic sound synthesis to enhance user schooling in interactive digital environments. The framework uses physiological and emotional data to generate emotion-adaptive sound, leveraging datasets like DREAMER and EMOPIA. The primary innovation of this framework is the ability to capture emotions dynamically since we can map them onto a circumplex model of valence and arousal for precise classification. The framework adopts a Transformer-based architecture to synthesize associated sound sequences conditioned on the emotional information. In addition, the framework incorporates a procedural audio generation module employing machine learning approaches: granular and wavetable synthesis and physical modeling to generate adaptive and personalized soundscapes. A user study with 64 subjects evaluated the framework through subjective ratings of sound quality and emotional fidelity. Analysis revealed differences among samples in sound quality, with some samples getting consistently high scores and some getting mixed reviews. While the emotion recognition model reached 70.3% overall accuracy, it performed better at distinguishing between high-arousal emotions but struggled to distinguish between emotions of similar arousal. This framework can be utilized in different fields such as healthcare, education, entertainment, and marketing; real-time emotion recognition can be applied to deliver personalized adaptive experiences. This step includes acquiring multimodal emotion recognition in the future and utilizing physiological data to understand people's emotions better.

Improving searcher struggle detection via the reversal theory

Searcher struggle is important feedback to Web search engines. Existing Web search struggle detection methods rely on effort-based features to identify the struggling moments. Their underlying assumption is that the more effort a user spends, the more struggling the user may be. However, studies have shown that this simple association might be incorrect. This paper proposes a new feature modulation method for struggle detection and refers to the Reversal Theory in psychology. Reversal Theory points out that instead of having a static personality trait, people constantly switch between opposite psychological states, complicating the relationship between the efforts they spend and the level of frustration they feel. Supported by the theory, our method modulates the effort-based features based on Reversal Theory’s bi-modal arousal model. After modification, the users’ effort level is better aligned with their struggling experience. Evaluations on Pinterest search logs confirm that the proposed method can statistically significantly improve searcher struggle detection methods.

The persuasive effects of scarcity messages on impulsive buying in live-streaming e-commerce: the moderating role of time scarcity

PurposeLive-streaming e-commerce (LSE) allows anchors to bring offline promotion skills to interact with consumers and persuade them to buy. However, how consumers respond to these communications remains unknown. This study examines the persuasive effect of different scarcity marketing messages on impulsive buying in the LSE context.Design/methodology/approachThis study adopts scenario-based experimental methods and conducts two 2 quantity-based scarcity (supply-framed vs demand-framed)*2 time-based scarcity appeals (high vs low) between-subjects experiments to test the hypotheses.FindingsThe results indicate that supply-framed appeals are more effective in provoking consumers’ arousal and impulsive buying, but are moderated by time scarcity. Furthermore, emotional arousal only mediates the effects of quantity-based scarcity appeals on impulsive buying under high-level time scarcity conditions.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the e-commerce literature by comparing the persuasive effect of different scarcity messages in the LSE context. We broaden the scarcity marketing literature by testing the combined effect of quantity-based and time-based scarcity appeals. Finally, this study extends the application of the competitive arousal model.

Can transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation mitigate vigilance loss? Examining the effects of stimulation at individualized versus constant current intensity.

According to the arousal model of vigilance, the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system modulates sustained attention over long periods by regulating physiological arousal. Recent research has proposed that transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) modulates indirect physiological markers of LC-NE activity, although its effects on vigilance have not yet been examined. Aiming to develop a safe and noninvasive procedure to prevent vigilance failures in prolonged tasks, the present study examined whether taVNS can mitigate vigilance loss while modulating indirect markers of LC-NE activity. Following a preregistered protocol (https://osf.io/tu2xy/), 50 participants completed three repeated sessions in a randomized order, in which either active taVNS at individualized intensity set by participant, active taVNS set at 0.5 mA for all participants, or sham taVNS, was delivered while performing an attentional and vigilance task (i.e., ANTI-Vea). Changes in salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol concentrations were measured as markers of LC-NE activity. Self-reports of feelings associated with stimulation and guessing rate of active/sham conditions supported the efficacy of the single-blind procedure. Contrary to our predictions, the observed vigilance decrement was not modulated by active taVNS. Pairwise comparisons showed a mitigation by active taVNS on cortisol reduction across time. Interestingly, Spearman's correlational analyses showed some interindividual effects of taVNS on indirect markers of LC-NE, evidenced by positive associations between changes in salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol in active but not sham taVNS. We highlight the relevance of replicating and extending the present outcomes, investigating further parameters of stimulation and its effects on other indirect markers of LC-NE activity.

Stochastic resonance is not required for pink noise to have beneficial effects on ADHD-related performance? The moderate brain arousal model challenged

ObjectiveRandom noise, such as white or pink noise, has been shown to have beneficial effects on the performance of individuals with (elevated traits of) ADHD. Both the state regulation deficit (SRD) account and the moderate brain arousal (MBA) model argue that this effect is due to enhanced cognitive arousal. The MBA model specifically attributes this to random noise affecting dopaminergic (DA) transmission via stochastic resonance (SR). However, he requirement of SR and the role of DA have not yet been properly examined. To test this, proper control conditions are needed. MethodTo examine the requirement of SR, 60 neurotypical adults with varying levels of ADHD traits performed a slow two-choice reaction time (S1–S2) task in three auditory conditions: pink (random) noise, a pure 100 Hz tone (non-random noise), and silence. All participants also completed the Attention Network Test (ANT) in two conditions (pink noise and silence) to inspect the effect on executive network efficiency which may serve as a proxy measure of DA. ADHD traits were assessed via self-report. ResultsAuditory stimulation improved performance on the S1–S2 task in participants with elevated ADHD traits, however this was the case for both pink noise and the pure tone. Pink noise did not affect executive network efficiency, irrespective of ADHD traits. ConclusionsOur results suggest that stochastic resonance is not required for pink noise to have a beneficial effect on ADHD-related performance. Pink noise did not affect our DA proxy measure, however this negative finding should be interpreted with caution. Our results cast doubt on the tenets of the MBA model, warranting further research.

Validation of Shortened Forms of Metacognition Questionnaire-Insomnia and Its Feasibility in the Discrepancy-Cognitive Arousal Model of Insomnia Among Patients With Cancer.

We aimed to explore the reliability and validity of the two shortened versions of the Metacognition Questionnaire-Insomnia (Metacognition Questionnaire-Insomnia-6 items [MCQI-6], Metacognition Questionnaire-Insomnia-14 items [MCQI-14]) among patients with cancer and examine the feasibility of the Discrepancy-Cognitive Arousal (DCA) model of insomnia among the cancer patients. A total of 154 patients with cancer were enrolled in this survey, which included rating scales such as the discrepancy between desired time in bed and desired total sleep time (DBST) index, Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), Cancer-related Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitude about Sleep-14 items (C-DBAS-14), MCQI-6, and MCQI-14. Both the MCQI-6 and MCQI-14 showed a good reliability of internal consistency. Confirmatory factor analysis showed a good model fit for two single-factor shortened versions. The total score of the MCQI-6 was significantly correlated with the MCQI-14 (r=0.97, p<0.01), ISI (r=0.68, p<0.01), C-DBAS-14 (r=0.78, p<0.01), and DBST index (r=0.21, p<0.05). Mediation analysis showed that the DBST index did not directly influence insomnia severity; however, the relationship was mediated by cancer-related dysfunctional beliefs about sleep and sleep-related metacognitive process among patients with cancer. The Korean versions of MCQI-6 and MCQI-14 are useful, reliable, and valid tools to evaluate sleep-related metacognitive processes among patients with cancer. The DCA model of insomnia was feasible even among cancer patients.

Self-assessment of affect-related events for physiological data collection in the wild based on appraisal theories

This paper addresses the need for collecting and labeling affect-related data in ecological settings. Collecting the annotations in the wild is a very challenging task, which, however, is crucial for the creation of datasets and emotion recognition models. We propose a novel solution to collect and annotate such data: a questionnaire based on the appraisal theory, that is accessible through an open-source mobile application. Our approach exploits a commercially available wearable physiological sensor connected to a smartphone. The app detects potentially relevant events from the physiological data, and prompts the users to report their emotions using a novel questionnaire based on the Ortony, Clore, and Collins (OCC) Model. The questionnaire is designed to gather information about the appraisal process concerning the significant event. The app guides a user through the reporting process by posing a series of questions related to the event. As a result, the annotated data can be used, e.g., to develop emotion recognition models. In the paper, we analyze users' reports. To validate the questionnaire, we asked 22 individuals to use the app and the sensor for a week. The analysis of the collected annotations shed new light on self-assessment in terms of appraisals. We compared a proposed method with two commonly used methods for reporting affect-related events: (1) a two-dimensional model of valence and arousal, and (2) a forced-choice list of 22 labels. According to the results, appraisal-based reports largely corresponded to the self-reported values of arousal and valence, but they differed substantially from the labels provided with a forced-choice list. In the latter case, when using the forced-choice list, individuals primarily selected labels of basic emotions such as anger or joy. However, they reported a greater variety of emotional states when using appraisal theory for self-assessment of the same events. Thus, proposed approach aids participants to focus on potential causes of their states, facilitating more precise reporting. We also found that regardless of the reporting mode (mandatory vs. voluntary reporting), the ratio between positive and negative reports remained stable. The paper concludes with a list of guidelines to consider in future data collections using self-assessment.

A shared "optimal-level of arousal": Seeking basis for creativity and curiosity.

We argue that the phases identified in the novelty-seeking model can be clarified by considering an updated version of the optimal-level of arousal model, which incorporates the "arousal" and "mood changing" potentials of stimuli and contexts. Such a model provides valuable insights into what determines one's state of mind, inter-individual differences, and the rewarding effects of curiosity and creativity.

The Discrepancy-Cognitive Arousal Model of Insomnia Among the General Population

Background and Objective We aimed to explore the Discrepancy-Cognitive Arousal model among the general population, applying the discrepancy between desired time in bed and desired total sleep time (DBST index), dysfunctional beliefs about sleep, and sleep-related metacognitive processes.Methods An anonymous online survey study was conducted among the general population between January 10 and 18, 2022. The survey form included a questionnaire for demographic characteristics and rating scales such as Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep–16 items (DBAS-16), and Metacognition Questionnaire for Insomnia–14 items (MCQI-14). In addition, questions for measuring participants’ DBST index were included.Results A total of 374 participants’ responses were analyzed. The ISI score was predicted by the DBST index (β = 0.11, p = 0.008), DBAS-16 (β = 0.37, p &lt; 0.001), and MCQI-14 (β = 0.30, p &lt; 0.001) in the linear regression analysis. In the mediation model, the DBST index directly predicted insomnia severity, and dysfunctional beliefs about sleep and sleep-related metacognitive processes mediated this relationship.Conclusions We observed that the Discrepancy-Cognitive Arousal model of insomnia was feasible among the general population.

Effects of auditory white noise stimulation on sustained attention and response time variability.

"The moderate brain arousal model" claims that white noise improves attention by optimizing brain arousal. We analyze Conners' Continuous Performance Test-3 (CCPT-3) performance, expecting to find reduced reaction time variability with noise mediated by decrease under long event-rates and in later parts of the test, indicating that noise reverse fall in phasic and tonic arousal. Sixty-five children with high or lower ADHD-symptoms from a child psychiatric unit, succeeded to complete the CCPT-3 with and without white noise. Noise reduced overall variability, improved performance in later parts of the test, and reduced response variability under the longest event rate particularly in the high symptoms group. No overall change in omissions and commissions, but the high symptoms group made fewer omissions during noise compared the low symptom group. The study indicates an arousal effect of noise but should be replicated with other noise variants and amplitudes to improve effect and compliance.

Armida on the Beach: A Cinquecento Rhetorical Model of the Emotions and Its Musical Reception

Abstract For music to arouse the emotions, observes the sixteenth-century Venetian music theorist Gioseffo Zarlino, four ingredients are required: harmony, rhythm, text, and “a well-disposed subject [soggetto ben disposto] fit to receive some emotion [passione].” The last point—that listeners must be properly “disposed” toward an emotion before they can be moved—features in contemporaneous writings as diverse as Torquato Tasso’s epic Gerusalemme liberata (1581) and Bartolomeo Cavalcanti’s manual on oratory La retorica (1558). The present article unveils this neglected aspect of Cinquecento theories of music and emotion and explores its relevance to the Italian madrigal. Specifically, I propose the importance to sixteenth-century conversations about music and the affetti of what I call the two-stage model of emotional arousal, a paradigm according to which the onset of emotion in any listener takes place in two phases: first, a subtle inclination toward a given emotion; and second, the true “movement” of the soul that constitutes the emotion itself. Hitherto unidentified in both musicology and the humanities in general, this model stems, I show, from the ancient rhetorical tradition, with Aristotle’s Rhetoric its probable fons et origo. After tracing the model’s influence across a corpus of literary and theoretical texts, I study its implications for musical analysis in a madrigal cycle by Giaches de Wert on stanzas by Tasso: “Vezzosi augelli,” “Qual musico gentil,” and “Forsennata gridava,” all from the composer’s Ottavo libro de madrigali (1586). This case study invites reconsideration of staple text-setting devices of the genre, including declamatory homophony and the madrigalism.

Relations between perceived affect and liking for melodies and visual designs.

Sensory valuation is a fundamental aspect of cognition. It involves assigning hedonic value to a stimulus based on its sensory information considering personal and contextual factors. Hedonic values (e.g., liking) can be deemed affective states that motivate behavior, but the relations between hedonic and affective judgments have yet to be established. To fill this gap, we investigated the relations between stimulus features, perceived affect, and liking across domains and with potentially relevant individual traits. Fifty-eight participants untrained in music and visual art rated their liking and perceived valence and arousal for visual designs and short melodies varying in balance, contour, symmetry, or complexity and filled out several questionnaires. First, we examined group-level relations between perceived affect and liking across domains. Second, we inspected the relations between the individual use of musical and visual properties in judgments of liking and perceived affect-that is, between aesthetic and perceived-affect sensitivities. Third, we inquired into the influence of information-related (need for cognition, or NFC) and affect-related (need for emotion) traits on individual sensitivities. We found domain-specific effects of the stimulus features on liking, a linear association between valence and liking, the inverted-U model of arousal and liking, a binary profile of musical aesthetic sensitivities, and a modulatory effect of NFC on how people use stimulus properties in their hedonic and affective judgments. In summary, the results suggest that hedonic value is primarily computed from domain-specific sensory information partially moderated by NFC. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

The Impact of Emotional Experience on Tourists’ Cultural Identity and Behavior in the Cultural Heritage Tourism Context: An Empirical Study on Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes

The emotions perceived by tourists and their effects in the tourism context are increasingly highlighted in tourism studies. In the cultural heritage tourism context, tourists’ emotional experience comes from their cognitive evaluation of the natural environment and the humanistic environment and triggers deep cognitive processing and prosocial behavior, further building tourists’ identity with culture and enhancing their awareness and heritage conservation behavior. Based on the theory of emotional evaluation and positive emotional expansion and construction, this study constructed the research model of emotional arousal—positive emotional experience—tourists’ cultural identity—heritage protection behavior. Three hundred and ninety-seven tourists’ data were empirically tested using the World Heritage Site, the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, as a case site. The study found that in the cultural heritage tourism context, the cognitive evaluation of the natural and humanistic environment has the effect of inducing positive emotional experience among tourists; positive emotional experience positively influences tourists’ cultural identity and heritage conservation behavior; and they are part of the mediating variables of tourists’ emotion elicitation and cultural identity. The results of this study will further enrich the theoretical research on emotions in the cultural heritage tourism context and also help the relevant departments of cultural heritage tourism further enhance tourists’ cultural identity and heritage conservation behaviors from the perspective of tourists’ emotional experience. The future research could focus on investigating the emotional triggers’ impact on tourists’ cultural identity and heritage conservation behavior in relation to a particular cultural experience activity.

Panic buying in the second wave of COVID-19: the moderating effect of past buying experience

PurposeWith the advent of the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic, there is a need to analyse the scenario of panic buying (PB) behaviour of the customers which was evident in the first wave. This paper aims to examine the PB scenario as well as the moderating effect of past buying experience (PBE) on PB in the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.Design/methodology/approachThis study is based on the theories of stimulus–organism–response model and the competitive arousal model. Based on these theories, this paper investigates how panic situation created by external stimuli such as perceived scarcity (PS), perceived risk (PR), news in media (NM) and social learning affect the perceived arousal (PA) among people which in turn influence the PB behaviour of customers. Data were collected from 253 customers from different parts of India. Structural equation modelling is used to analyse the moderating effect of PBE on the PB in the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic.FindingsThe results indicate that the PS, PR and NM continue to be strong predictors of a buyer for PA. However, the PB is not reinforced by the moderation effect of PBE.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper investigates the consumers’ PB behaviours in the wake of third wave of COVID-19 pandemic which add to the existing literature of COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, this study also examines how previous buying experience can moderate the PB behaviour of the customers in subsequent phases of COVID-19 pandemic. This supports the potential effectiveness of self-regulation as an intervention strategy for reducing PB behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic.Practical implicationsThis study emphasises the impact of external stimuli like PS, PR and media coverage on PB behaviour, marketers and policymakers should manage to avoid triggers. Although PBE may not moderate PB during a pandemic, it can play a significant role in future buying behaviour. Anticipating potential triggers and designing effective marketing strategies that cater to customers' needs can help manage PB behaviour during disasters or pandemics. In addition, promoting conscious consumption awareness and self-regulation practices among customers can help manage PB behaviour, benefit the environment and society and make customers more responsible buyers.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study examines the PB behaviour of customers during the second wave of COVID-19 pandemic for the first time. This study also investigates the moderating effect of PBE on the PB behaviour of customers during a pandemic which is new and significant that extends the literature on PB behaviour during a pandemic.

Heukharang lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) leaf extract displays sleep-promoting effects through GABAA receptor

Ethnopharmacological relevanceAlthough lettuce is traditionally known to have hypnotic and sedative effects, to date, only a few studies have documented its sleep-promoting effects and elucidated the related mechanisms. Aim of the studyWe aimed to investigate the sleep-promoting activity of Heukharang lettuce leaf extract (HLE) with increased lactucin content, known as a sleep-promoting substance in lettuce, in animal models. Materials and methodsTo evaluate the effect of HLE on sleep behavior, analysis of electroencephalogram (EEG), gene expression of brain receptors, and activation mechanisms using antagonists were investigated in rodent models. ResultsHigh-performance liquid chromatography analysis showed that HLE contained lactucin (0.78 mg/g of extract) and quercetin-3-glucuronide (1.3 mg/g of extract). In the pentobarbital-induced sleep model, the group administered 150 mg/kg of HLE showed a 47.3% increase in sleep duration time as compared to the normal group (NOR). The EEG analysis showed that the HLE significantly increased non-rapid eye movement (NREM), where delta waves were improved by 59.5% when compared to the NOR, resulting in increased sleep time. In the caffeine-induced arousal model, HLE significantly decreased the awake time increased by caffeine administration (35.5%) and showed a similar level to NOR. In addition, HLE increased the gene and protein expression of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor type A (GABAA), GABA type B, and 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) receptor 1A. In particular, in comparison to the NOR, the group administered 150 mg/kg HLE showed an increase in expression levels of GABAA and protein by 2.3 and 2.5 times, respectively. When the expression levels were checked using GABAA receptor antagonists, HLE showed similar levels to NOR, as the sleep duration was reduced by flumazenil (45.1%), a benzodiazepine antagonist. ConclusionsHLE increased NREM sleep and significantly improved sleep behavior due to its action on the GABAA receptors. The collective findings suggest that HLE can be used as a novel sleep-enhancing agent in the pharmaceutical and food industries.

“I got it FIRST”: Antecedents of competitive consumption of a new product

When a new product of a well-known brand is released, consumers wait in line as early as possible to increase their chances of purchasing the product. This research investigated the two-stage competitive arousal model of a new product purchase competition. Results of a structural equation modeling with a multi-group analysis approach showed that competitive arousal was a central psychological state stimulated by product uniqueness, scarcity, popularity, need for uniqueness, and self-enhancement value, influencing the intention to queue in line. Practical insights in targeting the right consumers and promoting a new product to draw optimal attention from consumers were further discussed.

On the relationship between EEG spectral analysis and pre-sleep cognitive arousal in insomnia disorder: towards an integrated model of cognitive and cortical arousal.

According to the hyperarousal model, insomnia is characterised by increased arousal in the cortical, cognitive, and physiological domains. However, the interaction between these arousal domains is poorly understood. The present observational case-control study aimed to investigate cortical arousal during the night, pre-sleep cognitive arousal and the relationship between these two domains. A total of 109 patients with insomnia disorder (ID) and 109 age-and gender matched healthy controls were investigated on two sleep laboratory nights. Electroencephalographic (EEG) spectral power during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and REM sleep was analysed as a measure of cortical arousal. In addition, patients completed the Pre-Sleep Arousal Scale (PSAS), which consists of two subscales, one for cognitive arousal (PSAS-CA) and one for self-reported somatic arousal (PSAS-SA). The relationship between the subscale scores and EEG spectral power was calculated by multi- and univariate analyses of variance. During NREM and REM sleep, patients with ID showed significantly increased spectral power in the EEG gamma band. In addition, patients with ID showed significantly increased scores on both subscales of the PSAS. The PSAS-CA score was significantly associated with increased NREM and REM gamma power, whereas PSAS-SA was associated with decreases in NREM and REM gamma power. Consistent with our hypothesis, patients with ID showed increased cortical and cognitive arousal. Moreover, there was an association between these two arousal domains, which may indicate that cortical arousal during the night is (at least in part) elicited by pre-sleep worry and rumination.

Factor structure of the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist (PCL-17) in 279,897 million veteran program participants

The Million Veteran Program (MVP) uses the posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms (PTSD) Checklist 17 (PCL-17) self-report to assess PTSD. Existing literature suggests that the five-factor dysphoric arousal model best represents the PTSD symptom clusters; this can be tested within MVP, one of the largest samples collected with suitable data. We compared factor models within MVP across genetically defined subsamples (ancestry [European, African, admixed American, and East Asian], sex) via multi-group confirmatory factor analyses in a sample of 279,897 participants. The five-factor dysphoric arousal model best fit the PCL-17 data, consistent with previous findings. The factor structure could also be imposed across all groups tested. Verifying the factor structure provides a framework for future phenotypic and genotypic analyses within MVP and other samples.

How Can Contextual Variables Influence Creative Thinking? Contributions from the Optimal‐Level of Arousal Model

ABSTRACTMore and more research is showing how different environments can lead to greater or lower creative skills. The purpose of this concept paper is to introduce a novel application of the optimal‐level of arousal model that could address inconsistencies present in the literature. After introducing possible definitions of creativity, I discuss the optimal‐level of arousal theory and how considering the “arousal” and “mood changing” potentials of contexts could enlighten findings related to inter‐individual differences, domain‐specificities, developmental aspects, and gender differences. Among other things, this model will clarify the factors influencing motivation to display creative skills which could improve the external validity of creativity studies. Examples of the kinds of hypotheses that can be tested by applying this model in future creative studies will also be proposed.

Deep Emotional Arousal Network for Multimodal Sentiment Analysis and Emotion Recognition

Multimodal sentiment analysis and emotion recognition has become an increasingly popular research area, where the biggest challenge is to efficiently fuse the input information from different modality. The recent success is largely credited to the attention-based models, e.g., transformer and its variants. However, the attention-based mechanism often neglects the coherency of human emotion due to its parallel structure. Inspired by the emotional arousal model in cognitive science, a Deep Emotional Arousal Network (DEAN) that is capable of simulating the emotional coherence is proposed in this paper, which incorporates the time dependence into the parallel structure of transformer. The proposed DEAN model consists of three components, i.e., a cross-modal transformer is devised to simulate the functions of perception analysis system of humans; a multimodal BiLSTM system is developed to imitate the cognitive comparator, and a multimodal gating block is introduced to mimic the activation mechanism in human emotional arousal model. We perform extensive comparison and ablation studies on three benchmarks for multimodal sentiment analysis and emotion recognition. The empirical results indicate that DEAN achieves state-of-the-art performance, and useful insights are derived from the results.