Mn-doped Samples Research Articles

Exploring different dopant materials in conjunction with iron oxide and analyzing their characterization and magnetic properties

The comparative studies of pure and different doping materials of α-XFe2O3 (X = Co, Mn, Ni and Zn) nanoparticles in Structural, Morphological, Optical, and magnetic behavior were analyzed in this article. The synthesis of α-XFe2O3 nanoparticles through the Sol-gel method for magnetic properties with various doping materials such as Co, Mn, Ni, and Zn. The structural, morphological, optical, and magnetic properties were carefully examined, revealing enhanced characteristics. XRD studies confirmed the successful incorporation of dopants into the crystal structure of α-Fe2O3, while Morphological analysis through SEM images indicated superparamagnetic properties in Co and Zn doped samples, and ferrite behavior in Mn and Ni doped samples. UV Spectra analysis showed optical transitional changes related to magnetic behavior, and the dielectric effect was attributed to the presence of multiple domains within the sample. The study effectively demonstrated the unique magnetic properties of pure and α-XFe2O3 nanoparticles, highlighting the importance of different doping materials in influencing their characteristics.

Supercapacitor devices based on multiphase MgTiO3 perovskites doped with Mn2+ ions

Recently, perovskites have become a hotspot for researchers attempting to exploit metal and oxygen vacancies in structures of the form MTiO3, facilitating the convenient electron/hole migration, thus displaying interesting properties. Magnesium Titanate (MgTiO3) is a prominent part of the perovskite class, exhibiting remarkable electrical, thermal, and chemical properties. Undoped and Mn-doped MgTiO3 samples were obtained using a solid-state reaction starting from previously synthesized MgO and TiO2 powders, which were separately doped with different Mn ion concentrations. The resulting multiphase materials with a major MgTiO3 phase were thoroughly morpho-structurally analyzed employing XRD, STEM, Raman, PL, XPS, and EPR spectroscopy. The electrochemical results indicate that they show superior performance when used as electrode materials for supercapacitor application due to the high defect concentration as shown in EPR and PL spectroscopy and the ferroelectric behavior observed in XPS and XRD. When used in symmetric and asymmetric supercapacitor devices, they show promising results, with specific capacity values reaching up to 109 F/g for the symmetric and 609 F/g for the asymmetric devices, while energy and power density values reached 84.7 Wh/kg and 90.8 kW/kg respectively, proving a great potential in the energy storage field.

A new insight on surface chemistry and redox species of transition metal (Fe, Mn) doped CeO2-SnO2/Al2O3 nanocomposites for automobile emission control

The ceria-tin/alumina mixed metal oxides (Ce/Sn =1) with different proportions of Fe & Mn dopants were synthesized and investigated in detailed approach for diesel emission reduction. The dopants created structural defects enhancing the oxygen ion mobility for exhaust treatment. The existence of surface-active oxygen sites and oxygen ion vacancy sites generated for charge compensation due to reduction of Ce4+, Sn4+ and dopants incorporation evidenced from XPS analysis. The Mn doped sample holds better physicochemical properties than Fe doped sample. The Mn doped sample with higher surface area of about 101.32 m2 g−1 exhibits greater active sites for better catalytic activity. The redox couples in the Mn-doped sample Ce4+/Ce3+, Sn4+/Sn2+, and Mn3+/Mn2+ helps in oxygen regeneration to contribute to exhaust treatment by oxygen ion conduction from bulk to the surface. This sample exhibited the 92 % of NOx reduction and proved to be a dynamic candidate for diesel emission reduction.

High-performance Li-ion battery cathode: Mn-doped LiFePO4 via solution combustion synthesis method

The main drawbacks of LiFePO4, namely low electronic conductivity and slow lithium ion diffusion, are overcome by doping through solution combustion synthesis. This study focuses on altering the properties of LiFePO4 cathode material by introducing manganese (Mn) into the Fe site. Using solution combustion synthesis, we successfully created Mn-doped LiFe1-xMnxPO4 samples (where x = 0.04, 0.08, and 0.12) as it provides highly pure and crystalline material with homogeneous incorporation of dopants. Through various analyses including X-ray diffraction (XRD), RAMAN spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), EDAX, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), BET surface area measurement, charge/discharge tests (CD), stability assessments, and rate performance evaluations, we uncovered insights into the structure, morphology, elemental composition, surface area, and electrochemical properties of the synthesized materials. Notably, the LiFe0.92Mn0.08PO4 sample exhibited an average capacity of 166.34 mAh/g over 100 cycles at a 0.1C rate, slightly below its theoretical capacity of 170 mAh/g.

Insight into phase stability and thermoelectric properties of semiconducting iron silicides with manganese substitution: β-Fe1−xMnxSi2 (0≤x≤0.05)

Metal-doped iron silicides (β-FeSi2) are promising thermoelectric materials for high-temperature applications. However, the addition of metal dopants usually causes the formation of secondary metallic phases, resulting in the degradation of thermopower. Here we report the stability of semiconducting β-phase (higher than 95 %) of Mn-doped β-FeSi2 obtained at Mn concentration from 1 % to 5 %, where the samples were prepared through direct arc melting and heat treatment process. The carrier density remarkably increases with Mn content, but the mobility decreases. The electrical resistivity significantly decreases with Mn content. The Seebeck coefficient of Mn-doped samples is improved and stable at high-temperature regions because of the reduction of the bipolar effect and β-phase stability. The thermal conductivity slightly increases with Mn. As a result, the maximum thermoelectric power factor PF = 970 μWm−1K−2 and dimensionless figure of merit ZT = 0.12 at 800 K are obtained in a 3 % Mn-doped sample. The stability of β-phase and the improved carrier density are the origins of enhanced thermoelectric properties, where the Seebeck coefficient is improved, and the electrical resistivity is reduced. Our study provides insight into the importance of phase stability for enhancing thermoelectric transport in Mn-doped β-FeSi2.

Effect of variable metal cation (Mn2+) on the phase stability of FAPbI3

Mn-doped FAPbI3 single-crystal samples were prepared using the inverse temperature crystallization method. A comparison of the samples before and after doping revealed that the stability of the Mn-doped sample was better than that of the undoped sample. On the one hand, Mn2+ reduces the generation of Pb0 and I0 through redox action thus reducing the lattice defects, on the other hand, it reduces the lattice residual stresses and achieves the purpose of improving the stability. Moreover, the doping of Mn does not significantly affect the material’s band gap, which provides a new idea for the study of the stability of organic–inorganic hybrid solar cells.

Photoluminescence properties of manganese activated calcium tungstate phosphors

This study presents the novel Mn doped CaWO4 nanophosphors as an excellent alternatives of rare earth free materials for display application. The Mn doped CaWO4 phosphor were characterized by various techniques, such as UV–Vis-DRS, Raman, PL analysis. Scheelite type tetragonal structure with space group I41/a has been confirmed. Rietveld analyses confirms the formation of single-phase solid solution. Lattice parameters for Mn free and Mn doped samples were calculated and observed that cell volume decreases after Mn incorporation. FTIR and Raman studies confirm the involvement of functional group and vibrational modes of vibration in the compound. Band gap values are estimated to be in the range of 4.2 to 4.33 eV with Mn doping. Photoluminescence study confirms the strong green emission at 450 and 515 nm (d-d transition in Mn2+) after Mn doping. Also, it was observed that strong emission peak appears ~422 nm is mainly due to the electronic transition, 1 T2 → 1 A1 in [WO4] 2- tetrahedron of CaWO4 host matrices. CIE study confirms that prepared nanophosphor exhibits strong blue colour after Mn incorporation. It can be employed as a potential material for blue phosphors in LEDs applications.

Structural, optical, and the effect of beta source (90Sr/90y) radiation on the thermoluminescence properties of the transition metal activated on lithium aluminum borate phosphor (Li3Al3(BO3)4:Mn)

The activation of Lithium aluminum borate material with varying concentrations of transition metal of manganese was studied. The synthesis of the phosphor samples was achieved by employing the solid-state sintering technique. The study aimed to determine the structural property, optical property, and the effect of beta source (90Sr/90y) radiation on the thermoluminescence properties of the phosphor material. The analyzed structure of both doped and undoped samples was obtained to be from 52.17 to 67.13 nm as the crystallite size and 67.00–120.00 nm as the particle size respectively. The optical studies showed an increase in mole concentration of the doped samples resulted in an increase in absorbance and a decrease in the energy band gap from 4.45 to 4.00 eV. The thermoluminescence report measured showed that the Mn-doped sample on lithium aluminum borate has the most prominent peak at 78 °C (major peak) and 294 °C (minor peak) when exposed to radiation dose (90Sr/90y beta source) of 50 Gy. The acquired activation energy was resolved using some of the models which include the initial rise, deconvolution, and the heat rate techniques. The dose response was determined to be linear from the Mn-doped lithium aluminum borate.

Influence of trace Mn doping on the high-speed shear performance of lead-free alloy/copper solder joints: Experimental and first principles investigation

This study aims to investigate the mechanical properties changes and the underlying reasons caused by Mn addition to the Cu6Sn5 intermetallic compounds (IMC). For this purpose, 0.07 wt.% Mn doped SnAgCu (SAC)305/Cu joint were prepared to observe its shear performance at a high speed of 1000 mm/s after aging at 170 °C for 750 h. The mechanical properties of Mn-doped samples exhibited a smaller decline after aging, in comparison to the undoped samples. Notably, the fracture location transitioned from the interior of the SAC joint to joint interface after doping. Nanoindentation experiments demonstrated a significant increase in the modulus and hardness of the Mn doped Cu3Sn and Cu6Sn5 phases. To gain a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms driving the changes in IMC properties, first principles calculations were employed. The introduction of Mn resulted in a strengthened bonding due to the hybridization of Mn and Sn atoms in the high-energy regions, leading to the formation of charge-enriched areas and improved mechanical properties of the IMC. The results obtained from both computational and experimental approaches exhibit similar trends in these changes. Moreover, the integration of computational and experimental methods provides a guidance for advancing IMC research and enhancing our understanding of their behavior.

Improving photovoltaic characteristics of CdS-based hybrid solar cells through Mn incorporation

CdS thin films, both with and without Mn-doping, were grown via chemical bath deposition on indium tin oxide-coated glass substrates for application in hybrid solar cells. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that Mn doping led to a deterioration in the crystal quality of CdS samples, evidenced by increased microstrain and dislocation density. Mn atoms were interstitially incorporated into the CdS structure, resulting in an expansion of the unit cell volume. Morphological analysis indicated a decrease in grain size from 390 nm to 140 nm for 0 % and 2 % Mn-doped CdS samples, respectively, while maintaining the spherical shape of the CdS thin films. Mn doping also increased the transmittance of CdS thin films, with the highest transparency of 95 % at 580 nm achieved for the 2 % Mn-doped CdS sample. In comparison to undoped CdS (2.38 eV), the band gap of CdS samples initially decreased to 1.84 eV for 1 % Mn doping but significantly increased to 3.03 eV for 2 % Mn-doped CdS. Photoluminescence (PL) data indicated that 2 % Mn-doped CdS thin films exhibited the lowest peak intensity, suggesting that a high concentration of Mn atoms caused non-radiative charge recombination. Additionally, efficient exciton dissociation was observed between CdS:Mn and P3HT:PCBM (poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and [6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM)) layers in the 2 % Mn-doped CdS-based device, as per the PL results. Photovoltaic measurements demonstrated that compared to undoped CdS, 2 % Mn doping increased the power conversion efficiency of the CdS-based device from 0.070 % to 0.202 %, indicating an almost threefold increase in hybrid solar cell efficiency. This improvement is likely attributed to the development of a better interface between the CdS:Mn and P3HT:PCBM layers.

Effect of Mn Substitution on GeFe2O4 as an Anode for Sodium Ion Batteries

GeFe2O4 (GFO), with its intriguing intercalation mechanism based on alloying–conversion reactions, was recently proposed as an anode material for sodium ion batteries (SIBs). However, drawbacks related to excessive volume expansion during intercalation/deintercalation and poor electronic conductivity enormously hinder its practical application in batteries. In this regard, some experimental strategies such as cation substitutions and proper architectures/carbon coatings can be adopted. In this paper, pure and Mn-doped GFO samples were prepared by hydrothermal synthesis. The doped samples maintained the spinel cubic structure and the morphology of pure GFO. The electrochemical tests of the samples, performed after proper carbon coating, showed the expected redox processes involving both Ge and Fe ions. The Mn doping had a positive effect on the capacity values at a low current density (about 350 mAh/g at C/5 for the Mn 5% doping in comparison to 300 mAh/g for the pure sample). Concerning the cycling stability, the doped samples were able to provide 129 mAh/g (Mn 10%) and 150 mAh/g (Mn 5%) at C/10 after 60 cycles.

Structural investigations of ZnO nanostructure

Undoped and Mn-doped ZnO samples with different percentages of Mn content (1, 5 and 10 at%) were synthesized by a dip coating sol–gel method. We have studied the structural, chemical and optical properties of the samples by using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and UV-visible spectroscopy. The XRD spectra show that all the samples are hexagonal wurtzite structures. We note that doping favors c-axis orientation along (002) planes. Up to 5 at% of Mn doping level, the c- axis lattice parameter shifts towards higher values with the increase of manganese content in the films. The expansion of the lattice constant of ZnO–Mn indicates that Mn is really doped into the ZnO. The SEM investigations of all samples revealed that the crystallites are of nanometer size. The sur- face quality of the ZnO–Mn film increases with Mn doping but no significant change of the grain size is observed from SEM images. The transmittance spectra show that the trans parency of all the samples is greater than 85 %. We note, also, that a small doping (1 %) lowered the refractive index while the thickness of the layers and the gap increase. However, on raising the proportion of Mn beyond 5 %, practically the same values of index and gap as pure ZnO are found.

Dopant effect on the optical and thermal properties of the 2D organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite (HDA)2PbBr4.

Lead-based two-dimensional organic-inorganic hybrid perovskites (2D HOIPs) are popular materials with various optical properties, which can be tuned through metal ion doping. Due to the size and valence misfit, metal ion dopants in 2D lead-based HOIPs are still limited. In this work, Mn2+, Sb3+ and Bi3+ are doped into 2D (HDA)2PbBr4 (HDA = protonated dopamine) successfully. As a result, the dopants in 2D (HDA)2PbBr4 can induce their characteristic optical spectra, which is studied at different temperatures and excitation powers. The temperature-dependent energy transfer in the Mn-doped sample has been clarified, in which abnormal phenomena including negative thermal quenching have been observed. In addition, the dopant ions can impact the phase transition temperatures of the samples, especially lowering their crystallization temperatures greatly. The mussel-inspired organic cation, feasible metal ion regulation, and superior stability provide (HDA)2PbBr4 potential for further applications.

Study of structural, morphological and optical properties of Mn+2 doped CdS nanoparticles synthesized at various doping concentration

Manganese-doped cadmium sulphide semiconductor nanoparticles (CdS: Mn) NPs have been created utilizing a microwave-assisted solvothermal technique at different Mn concentrations (0, 1%, 3%, and 5%). The chemicals utilized for the preparation of Mndoped CdS nanoparticles were sodium sulphide (Na2S.xH2O), manganese chloride (MnCl2.4H2O), and cadmium acetate (CH3COO)2Cd., H2O). To determine the structural dimensions of the generated nanoparticles, the Debye-Scherer equation was used to calculate the average crystallite size at the full-width half maximum (FWHM) of the diffraction peaks. FTIR spectra analysis was used to look at the various functional and vibrational groups present in the Mn-doped CdS nanoparticle sample. The structure features of the produced nanoparticles have been examined using X-ray diffraction patterns. Energy dispersive X-rays were employed to ascertain the chemical composition of the synthesized nanoparticles. The optical properties and quantification of the energy band gap of the nanoparticles have been done using UV-V spectroscopy. According to XRD calculations, the cubic zinc-blend structure of the generated NPs had a crystal size of between 4 and 7 nm. By using EDX spectroscopy, the incorporation of Mn at the CdS lattice was confirmed.

Effects of incorporating manganese in CdS thin films elaborated by CBD and the performance of Schottky diodes TCO/CdS:Mn/C

This study focuses on manganese doped CdS thin films by chemical bath deposition (CBD). Thin films and Schottky diodes of CdS and CdS:Mn are synthesized by a simple chemical route. The influence of the incorporation of Mn2+ cations in the crystalline structure of CdS has been characterized by techniques such as XRD, SEM, XPS, UV–Vis spectroscopy, and I–V curves. Doped thin films have a uniform hexagonal structure and preferentially grow along the (100) and (002) planes. The higher the amount of Mn2+ cations, the preferential orientation of the (100) plane gradually disappears, while the undoped sample shows a preferential orientation in the (002) plane. In addition, the morphology, when incorporating manganese, exhibits a drastic change, generating scale-like and needle-like structures, and the average size of the particles varies from 67 nm to 107 nm, in contrast to virgin CdS particles that show a mean size of 23 nm and spherical structures. The variation of the bandgap is 0.067 eV due to the presence of the preferential orientation in the (100) crystal plane in the Mn-doped samples and the doping increase in crystallite size. Doped Schottky diodes exhibit a saturation current of 2 nA and a potential barrier of 0.66 eV, compared to undoped diodes that exhibit a saturation current of 0.93 nA and a potential barrier of 0.823 eV. In addition, it was possible to modify the rectification speed of the diodes by almost 70 % by incorporating manganese. Overall, our study reveals that there is great potential in the design of affordable high-speed optoelectronic devices, although we are aware that we are still at an early stage in achieving these goals.

Mn dopant-enabled BiFeO3 with enhanced magnetic and photoelectric properties

In this study, BiFe1−XMnXO3 (BFMXO, x = 0, 0.03, 0.05, 0.07, 0.10, and 0.15) nanoparticles were synthesized using the sol-gel technique. The XRD patterns confirm that the BFMXO nanoparticles exhibit a rhombic structure with the addition of Mn dopant, while structural distortion occurred as the doping concentration increased. In particular, Mn doping effectively induced lattice shrinkage and enhanced the lattice strain. The SEM and TEM images showed increased uniformity and grain size reduction as Mn doping concentration increased. The XPS spectra show that the conversion of Fe2+ to Fe3+ leads to the increase of oxygen vacancy concentration. Further, the M−H loops show that the saturation magnetization and residual magnetization of all Mn-doped samples were successfully improved with the gradual transformation from antiferromagnetism to ferromagnetism. Therefore, BiFe0.93Mn0.07O3 reached a maximum Ms and Mr of approximately 0.956 and 0.054 emu/g, respectively. Further, BiFe0.93Mn0.07O3 exhibited 4–5 times higher photoconductivity than the pristine sample. First-principles calculations further accounted for the improved magnetic and electrical properties of BFMXO induced by the Mn dopant. This study demonstrates an effective method for controlling the structure and characteristics of BFO-based nanomaterials for multifunctional device applications.

Enhanced bipolar fatigue resistance by few oxygen vacancies of PZN-PNN-PZT ceramics near MPB

The bipolar fatigue behavior for Mn-doped PZN-PNN-PZT ceramics with composition near the MPB region was investigated at both 0.6 Ec and 2 Ec (where Ec is a coercive field). It was found that fatigue behavior depends on both the Mn doping content (or oxygen vacancies and the amplitude of the applied electric fields. Compared to no Mn doping ceramics, enhanced bipolar fatigue resistance was observed in 0.1 wt% Mn doping samples by nearly no variation of remnant polarization up to 106 cycles. The enhanced fatigue behavior is proposed to the weak pinning effect of few oxygen vacancies on domain walls, which hinders the microcrack propagation and stabilizes the domain structure. As Mn doping content increased, rich oxygen vacancies exist in ceramics, and the remnant polarization deteriorated due to the severe pinning effect of defect dipoles. Besides, different fatigue behaviors at 0.6 Ec and 2 Ec indicate that fatigue behavior can be controlled by the orientation of defect dipoles under repeated fatigue cycling.

Enhancing pseudo-capacitive behavior in Mn-doped Co3O4 nanostructures for supercapacitor applications

The study focused on Mn-doped Co3O4 samples, which were synthesized successfully using the coprecipitation method and subsequently annealed at 600 °C. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns displayed distinct peaks corresponding to the spinel-cubic structure of Co3O4. Notably, these patterns indicated a preference for (311) plane orientations, which shifted toward lower diffraction angles as the concentration of Mn increased. The analysis of crystallite sizes for the Mn-doped Co3O4 nanoparticles revealed values of 40 nm, 38 nm, and 38 nm for Co3O4:3%Mn, Co3O4:5%Mn, and Co3O4:7%Mn, respectively. Employing X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), the study provided insights into the chemical constituents and valence states of the samples. It revealed the presence of both Co2+ and Co3+ ions, along with different oxygen states. The investigation into the electrochemical behavior of the Mn-doped Co3O4 nanostructures highlighted their pseudo-capacitive nature. The specific capacitance and cyclic stability of these structures were found to be contingent on the concentration of Mn doping. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) data unveiled low interfacial charge resistance and enhanced ion diffusion rates. Notably, the most striking results were observed with the 7 wt% Mn-doped Co3O4 nanomaterials. These materials exhibited an outstanding specific capacitance of 537 F/g at a current density of 1.5 A/g. Additionally, they demonstrated remarkable capacity retention of 94% over a span of 1500 cycles. In conclusion, the Mn-doped Co3O4 nanostructures showcased promising electrochemical performance, which could render them suitable for potential applications in supercapacitors.

Enhanced photo-Fenton-like performance of biotemplated manganese-doped cobalt silicate catalysts

Cobalt-based catalysts are one of the preferred materials for effective activation of hydrogen peroxide, and metal element doping and active site dispersion are effective methods to enhance their catalytic activity. In this work, manganese-doped cobalt silicate@diatomite composites with enhanced photo-Fenton-like oxidation performance were prepared and used for degradation of methyl orange (MO) dyes. Experiments showed that manganese doping increased the specific surface area of the samples and decreased the band gap energy of the materials. Moreover, the samples doped with manganese elements had better photo-Fenton-like properties. The degradation of methyl orange by Co0.25MnSi@DE/H2O2-UV reached more than 95%. In addition, density-functional theory (DFT) calculations showed that the Mn-doped samples were more prone to activate H2O2 than non-manganese-doped samples, and the synergistic effect from using a bimetallic catalyst increased the photo-Fenton oxidation activity in the system. ESR spectroscopy and bursting tests indicated that the possible degradation mechanism consisted of hydroxyl radicals and superoxide radicals generated by the synergistic effect of cobalt ions and manganese under UV radiation. This study thus presents a feasible idea for the preparation of cobalt-based photo-Fenton catalysts that also provides a basis for understanding the catalytic mechanism analysis of other types of bimetallic catalysts.

Mechano-Chemical Synthesis and Characterization of Undoped and Mn2+ Doped Cspb(Br1-xClx)3 Halide Perovskite for Light Source Application

All-inorganic halide perovskites (HPs) continue to be of current interest for light source applications (e.g. lasers, LED’s) because of their high emission quantum yields and wide wavelength tunability due to compositional engineering [1]. The development of red and near-IR emitting lead halide perovskites, however, has been hampered by low emission efficiency and instability of iodine based compositions at room temperature. Recent studies employing transition metal or lanthanide doping have demonstrated an alternative approach to achieve red and near-IR emitting HPs structures [2-4]. In this study we report results of the mechano-chemical synthesis of undoped and manganese (Mn) doped CsPb(Br1-xClx)3 halide perovskites as emitting materials for light source development. Mechano-chemical synthesis is considered a green chemistry method avoiding the use of complex and time-consuming reactions, energetic-enabled conditions, expensive precursor sources, and hazardous reagents, catalysts, additives, and surfactants. Mechano-chemical synthesis experiments were performed employing a high energy ball-mill and 5N purity lead halide and cesium halide powders. The prepared HPs were evaluated by optical microscopy, SEM, TEM, XRD, and fluorometric measurements. Under UV optical excitation a Mn doped CsPbCl3 sample exhibited a broad red emission band centers at ~615nm, which was slightly red-shifted compared to the emission from a melt-grown Mn: CsPbCl3 crystals (see Figure 1). Post synthesis optimization strategies for HPs were also explored including thermal treatment, high-pressure studies, and solvent dependency. Comparative studies of the emission properties of undoped and Mn doped CsPb(Br1-xClx)3 prepared by mechano-chemical synthesis, microwave-assisted synthesis, and melt-synthesis will also be presented.AcknowledgmentThis work was supported by the Army Research Office (grant W911NF1810447) and National Science Foundation (grant NSF-DMR 1827820-PREM).