Mm-wave Frequencies Research Articles

Energy-Efficient Joint User Association, Backhaul Bandwidth Allocation, and Power Allocation in Cell-Free mmWave UAV Networks

In this article, we propose a cell-free network architecture for an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) base station (BS), i.e., UBS, incorporating high-altitude platform stations (HAPSs) as central processing units (CPUs). The goal is to guarantee the quality of service (QoS) of user equipment (UE), reduce energy consumption, extend communication time, and facilitate rescue operations. The millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequency band is deployed in access and backhaul links to satisfy UE QoS requirements and high backhaul demands. The proposed framework jointly optimizes user association, backhaul bandwidth allocation, and power allocation to maximize energy efficiency while meeting QoS requirements. The optimization problem, modeled as non-convex mixed-integer nonlinear fractional programming, is solved through a three-stage iterative algorithm. This includes (1) optimizing power allocation based on Dinkelbach transformation and a successive convex approximation (SCA) method, (2) clustering UBSs using the Lagrangian method, and (3) deriving a closed-form bandwidth allocation factor. The proposed algorithm significantly outperforms many traditional algorithms in performance while maintaining low computational complexity.

Sub-6GHz and circularly polarized mm-wave DNG-CMM tri-patch MIMO radiator for 5G applications

ABSTRACT In present days, wideband circularly polarised antennas are best candidates for 5G to meet the challenges of effective utility of spectrum, large data rates, strong channel capacity, communication with low latency and enormous connectivity of device. Mobile users have to choose the devices that ran at sub-6 GHz or mm-wave, though, as the maximum users aim to employ distinct frequency bands for their 5G services, it is crucial to use both. For the 5G necessities, a 35.8 × 6.8 × 0.254 mm3 under-6 GHz and circular polarised mm-wave double negative complementary metamaterial (DNG-CMM) three patched MIMO antenna was structured and also explored the various 5G bands in below 6 GHz and mm-waves in several nations. The frequency ranges that the recommended MIMO radiator is covering 14.66–41.49 GHz and 5.24–6.01 GHz. Below 3 dB axial ratio (circular polarisation) was noted at 24.64–36.52 GHz and 38.25 GHz. The gain 3.07–4.2 dBi and 3.85–22.89 dBi were attained at lower and higher operating bands, respectively. This MIMO radiator underwent testing and fabrication. There was considerable accuracy in the similarity between the simulated and measured findings. The findings showed that the EM wave emitting structure that was provided may cover the 5G NR n-46 band under 6 GHz as well as the 5G NR n-257, n-258, n-260 and n-261 bands in the mm-wave frequencies with notable radiation features. Therefore, it is a good fit for 5G (mm-wave and sub-6 GHz) applications.

Experimental investigation of a seamlessly converged fiber-wireless access network employing free-running laser- and envelope detection-based mmWave generation and detection.

Employing free-running laser/envelope detection-based millimeter wave (mmWave) signal generation/detection at remote radio heads (RRHs)/user equipment (UE) offers a cost-effective solution for seamlessly integrating existing intensity modulation-direct detection (IM-DD)-dominated optical access networks and wireless networks. Such fiber-wireless convergence enables a continuous flow of signals with varying characteristics between the baseband unit (BBU) and UE across fiber and wireless network segments without the need for optical-electrical-optical (O-E-O) conversions and digital signal processing (DSP) at intermediate nodes. In this paper, we extensively investigate the performance of such a fiber-wireless converged access network employing free-running laser/envelope detection-based mmWave generation/detection in an IM-DD-based 1.67 Gbit/s transmission system with 25 km standard single-mode fiber (SSMF) and 5 m @38 GHz mmWave wireless links. Experimental results demonstrate that both mmWave frequency tunability and adaptive mmWave network coverage are achievable by just dynamically and adaptively configuring the output wavelength and power of the RRH-embedded free-running laser. Additionally, envelope detection allows RRHs to use low-cost MHz-linewidth-level free-running lasers while maintaining excellent performance stability.

Pronounced effect of surface coating on the antenna characteristics at mmWave frequency band

Pronounced effect of surface coating on the antenna characteristics at mmWave frequency band

High-Performance CP Magneto-Electric Dipole Antenna Fed by Printed Ridge Gap Waveguide at Millimeter-Wave.

This paper presents a high-performance circularly polarized (CP) magneto-electric (ME) dipole antenna optimized for wideband millimeter-wave (mm-wave) frequencies, specifically targeting advancements in 5G and 6G technologies. The CP antenna is excited through a transverse slot in a printed ridge gap waveguide (PRGW), which operates in a quasi-transverse electromagnetic (Q-TEM) mode. Fabricated on Rogers RT 3003 substrate, selected for its low-loss and cost-effective properties at high frequencies, the design significantly enhances both impedance and axial ratio (AR) bandwidths. The antenna achieves an impressive impedance bandwidth of 31% (25.24-34.50 GHz) and an AR bandwidth of 24.9% (26.40-33.91 GHz), with a peak gain of up to 8.4 dBic, demonstrating a high cross-polarization level. The experimental results validate the high-performance characteristics of the antenna, making it a robust candidate for next-generation wireless communication systems requiring CP capabilities.

Optimizing Millimeter Wave MIMO Channel Estimation Through GPU-Based Edge Artificial Intelligence

In the context of upcoming sixth-generation (6G) wireless communication systems, the use of millimeter wave (mmWave) frequencies is a key technology for achieving high-throughput communications. Accurate parametric estimation of mmWave channels is critical for effective beamforming design and configuration, requiring sophisticated models to capture the directional characteristics of these channels. This work considers an innovative artificial intelligence (AI) approach for accurate estimation of angle-of-arrival (AoA) and angle-of-departure (AoD) parameters from frequency-domain channel observations. Our approach is based on the implementation of two convolutional neural networks (CNNs): a residual CNN (ResNet) and a U-Net CNN. Specifically, this work focuses on the efficient implementation of both schemes in an embedded system suitable for edge AI. We performed the experiments in a low-power NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano platform and evaluated the effect of modifying the frequencies of its CPU and GPU on the performance of the inference process, both in terms of execution time and energy consumption. Experimental results showed that the U-Net model is more power consuming, but as it is faster, it consumes less energy per channel.

Signalling overhead minimization aware handover execution using ensemble learning in next generation wireless networks

Upcoming smart intelligent heterogeneous wireless networks (HWNs) and their uses can greatly benefit from the merging of long-term evolution (LTE) sub-6 GHz along with millimeter wave (mmWave) frequencies by boosting the coverage, bandwidth, reliability, seamless connectivity, and high quality of service (QoS). Nevertheless, because of the inability of directed waves in terms of coverage, it is difficult to locate the appropriate mmWave remote radio units (RRUs). Therefore, it is crucial to lessen the burden of the handover signaling processes. In meeting research requirements this paper presents signaling overhead minimization aware handover execution (SOMAHE) model. The SOMAHE model first introduces a novel handover mechanism between LTE and mmWave is presented in this research, followed by a machine learning (ML)-based autonomous handover execution technique. To estimate the handover success rate, the model introduces a feature ensemble learning (FEL) model built using XGBoost (XGB) model that makes use of sampling windows channel data. To conclude, combining FEL into the SOMAHE model reduces signaling overhead while simultaneously increasing the handover success-rate. Experiment results with varying mobile terminals, demonstrate that the SOMAHE model significantly outperforms the existing standard deep q-networks (DQN)-based handover-execution method.

Fully Metallic Additively Manufactured Monopulse Horn Array Antenna in Ka-Band

The Laser Powder-Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing (LPBF AM) technique is evaluated for the manufacturing of fully metallic monolithic microwave components. To validate the manufacturing technique, a difference pattern array of 4 × 4 horn antennas is designed to operate at mm-Wave frequencies. The antenna is based on H-plane power dividers and a complex structure to obtain a difference radiation pattern by rotating twisted sections in two different orientations. The prototype is manufactured with a monolithic piece of aluminum alloy AlSi10Mg, providing a lightweight single structure that includes both radiating elements and a feeding network consisting of twisters and power dividers in a waveguide. The prototype was experimentally evaluated in an anechoic chamber and the near-field planar acquisition range, obtaining good agreement with full-wave simulations within an operational bandwidth from 34 to 36 GHz. The results demonstrate that the LPBF AM technique is a suitable candidate to produce challenging monolithic metal-only microwave components in the Ka-band, such as monopulse antennas.

Effect of skin thickness on electromagnetic dosimetry analysis of a human body model up to 100 GHz

Abstract The accuracy of electromagnetic (EM) exposure assessments depends mainly on the resolution of a voxel human body model. The resolution of the conventional human body model is limited to a few millimeters. In the millimeter wave (mmWave) frequency range, EM waves are absorbed by the superficial tissues in the human body. Therefore, resolution and skin thickness of the human body model are important for accuracy of the EM wave exposure metrics recommended by international human safety guidelines. Realistic thickness modeling of the skin tissue on the human body may provide greater accuracy in the EM exposure assessment, especially at mmWave frequency range. In this paper, effects of the skin thickness on the EM exposure metrics in one-dimensional multi-layered models obtained from different regions of the body model are investigated using the dispersive algorithm based on the finite-difference time-domain method over the frequency range from 1 to 100 GHz. Furthermore, effects of eyelid tissue in a human eye on the EM exposure metrics are studied over the frequency range. The EM exposure metrics such as absorbed power density, heating factor, and power transmission coefficient are calculated up to 100 GHz to evaluate the limits of EM wave exposure.

Performance Analysis of Millimeter-Wave Propagation Characteristics for Various Channel Models in the Indoor Environment

Due to the recent surge in the proliferation of smart wireless devices that feature higher data speeds, there has been a rise in demand for faster indoor data communication services. Moreover, there is a sharp increase in the amount of mobile data being generated worldwide, and much of this data comes from residential wireless applications like high-definition TV, device-to-device communication, and high data rate indoor networks (i.e., local and cellular). These technologies need large capacity, high data rate indoor wireless networks with huge bandwidth. Consequently, a greater interest exists in implementing an effective and trustworthy indoor propagation model for next-generation wireless systems operating in the massively bandwidth-rich millimeter wave (mm-wave) frequency range. The analysis of mm-wave propagation characteristics in an indoor environment using the ray tracing approach is proposed in this paper. Propagation modeling for 60 GHz bands is included. The aspects of wideband propagation characteristics such as angular spread, path loss, delay spread, and power delay profile are modeled in this paper. The position of transceivers, antenna effect, and attenuation, in the hallways, and stairwells will all be considered while determining the propagation parameters. This includes wave propagation characteristics like absorption, reflection, and diffraction by building structures and furniture. The specifications for propagation characteristics are included in the article for developing indoor local and cellular networks. In this paper, the IRT model has been tested at 60 GHz for potential mobile communication and is identified as the best method for predicting signal attenuation caused by objects, barriers, or humans within buildings in internal millimeter wave transmission.

Analysis of 3D Printed Dielectric Resonator Antenna Arrays for Millimeter-Wave 5G Applications

This paper explores the potential use of fused deposition modeling (FDM) technology for manufacturing microwave and millimeter-wave dielectric resonator antennas (DRAs) for 5G and beyond communication systems. DRAs operating at microwave and millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequency bands were simulated, fabricated, and analyzed in terms of manufacturing quality and radio frequency (RF) performance. Samples were manufactured using a 3D printer and PREPERM® ABS1000 filament, which offers a stable dielectric constant (εr = 10 ± 0.35) and low losses (tan δ = 0.003) over wide frequency and temperature ranges. Surface profile tests and microscope measurements revealed discrepancies in the dimensions in the xy-plane and along the z-axis, consistent with the observed shift in resonant frequency. Despite these variations, reasonably good agreement between RF-simulated and measured results was achieved, and the DRA array successfully covered the intended mmWave band. However, challenges in achieving high precision may restrict applications at higher mmWave bands. Nevertheless, compared with conventional methods, FDM techniques offer a highly accessible and flexible solution with a wide range of materials for home and micro-manufacturing of mmWave DRAs for modern 5G systems.

Comprehensive Performance Testing Analysis and Security Vulnerability Detection of a 5G Stand Alone Network using a Firecell Testbed

With the proliferation of 5G networks, evaluating security vulnerabilities is crucial. This paper presents an implemented 5G standalone testbed operating in the mmWave frequency range for research and analysis. Over-the-air testing validates expected throughputs up to 5Gbps downlink and 1Gbps uplink, low latency, and robust connectivity. Detailed examination of captured network traffic provides insights into protocol distribution and signalling flows. The comparative evaluation shows only 0.45% packet loss on the testbed versus 2.7% in prior simulations, proving improved reliability. The results highlight the efficacy of the testbed for security assessments, performance benchmarking, and progression towards 6G systems. This paper demonstrates a robust platform to facilitate innovation in 5G and beyond through practical experimentation.For access to the code, data, and experimental results, visit our GitHub repository(https://github.com/Didilish/5G-SA-Testbed-Analysis)

Design and optimization of dielectric resonator based MIMO antenna with beam tilting at mm-wave for enhanced 5G communication using machine learning

In this paper, a dual-port ceramic-based multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna is designed for operation at mm-wave frequencies. The design incorporates a partially reflecting surface (PRS) positioned above the dual-port antenna to facilitate beam tilting. Additionally, various machine learning (ML) algorithms are utilized to optimize the unit cell length and the distance between the Dielectric Resonator Antenna (DRA) and the PRS, thereby achieving the desired beam tilting characteristics. The ceramic element is excited through an aperture, which generates the HEM11δ mode in the cylindrical dielectric resonator antenna (CDRA). The proposed antenna demonstrates excellent port isolation, exceeding 35 dB, and operates effectively within the 25.9–27.4 GHz frequency range. The PRS enables a broadside beam tilt of ±30 degrees, incorporating pattern diversity into the design. These characteristics make the proposed antenna an ideal candidate for mm-wave vehicle-to-vehicle and 5G communication systems.

A low-profile dual-band millimeter wave patch antenna for high-speed wearable and biomedical applications

This paper presents a low-profile, dual-band patch antenna designed for the mmWave frequency range. The antenna, fed by a microstrip line, is fabricated on a thin, flexible substrate (Rogers 3003) with dimensions of 12 × 3 × 0.25 mm³. The radiating patch includes two circular slots, enabling dual-band operation at 28 GHz and 38 GHz. Key performance metrics, including realized gain, efficiency, and radiation patterns, are analyzed across these frequency bands, with measured results compared to simulations performed using CST Microwave Studio. Furthermore, the antenna's parameters are evaluated in a bent configuration, demonstrating its suitability for wearable applications. The study also assesses the antenna's impact on human tissues, calculating average SAR values of 0.914 W/Kg and 1.140 W/Kg at 28 GHz, and 0.720 W/Kg and 1.360 W/Kg at 38 GHz, for 1/10 gm tissue. Furthermore, the link margin is calculated to verify effective wireless communication over distances up to 80 m. This antenna effectively covers key millimeter-wave frequency bands, making it ideal for high-speed 5 G and biomedical applications.

Performance Evaluation of mmWave Communication for Real-Time UAV-Base Station Links

Introduction: In the context of modern communication networks, the increasing demand for high data rates, minimal latency, and improved reliability—especially in scenarios involving Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)—calls for innovative solutions. Millimeter-wave (mmWave) communication emerges as a fitting choice due to its capacity to offer ample bandwidth and high data rates. Methods: This research paper presents a comprehensive study that compares the performance of mmWave communication links across four different frequencies (6, 28, 60, and 120 GHz) for UAV-to-Base Station (BS) communication. The investigation, conducted through simulations, adheres to atmospheric conditions such as rain and fog, different environments (urban and rural) scenarios. It evaluates the suitability of mmWave frequencies using critical performance metrics: latency, received power, Bit Error Rate (BER) and Signal-to-Interference plus Noise Ratio (SINR). These metrics play a fundamental role in assessing communication link quality. Results: Our findings reveal that leveraging higher mmWave frequencies—specifically 60 and 120 GHz—significantly enhances UAV-to-BS communication performance. Compared to lower frequencies, these higher bands exhibit reduced latency, higher data rates, and improved throughput. Consequently, mmWave frequencies beyond 60 GHz prove well-suited for UAV communication, facilitating efficient data exchange with minimal delay. Conclusion: Furthermore, the potential for reduced interference and enhanced reliability at these elevated frequencies makes them particularly advantageous in applications requiring seamless connectivity. Examples include UAV-assisted emergency response, surveillance, and remote sensing. These insights hold substantial implications for the design and deployment of UAV communication systems, highlighting mmWave technology’s transformative potential in the emerging era of aerial communication.

Design and analysis of graphene-based PBG and EBG array antennas for wideband and multiband mm-wave applications

This paper presents a graphene-based PBG, EBG array antenna design with 40 × 40 mm2 dimensions for wide and multiband applications. The corporate CPW (Coplanar Waveguide) feeding technique is integrated with the ring, meander line, and periodic staircase with a slot pattern and augmented by conductive graphene for Electromagnetic Band Gap and Photonic Band Gap structures on the opposite side. This integration significantly enhances antenna performance, manifesting in superior radiation properties, increased gain, enhanced directivity, and resonating behavior with return loss of 16.4, 21.7, and 22.45 27.0, 25.3 dB in range of 24–25.25 GHz, 26.29–28.1 GHz, and 28.8–35.95 GHz and five bands with return loss of 26.1 , 21.1 , 22.2 , 31 , and 15.5 dB in range of 25.28–26.25, 28.1–29.4, 30.7–33.5, 34–35.5, 36.2–40.0 GHz that covers wideband and Multiband applications concerning PBG and EBG structures, respectively. Furthermore, the proposed antennae exhibit peak gains of 8 dBi at 26.53 GHz and 9 dBi at 32 GHz, corresponding 86.1% and 79.4% peak efficiencies and ensure robust circular polarization at resonating notches cover the mm-Wave 5G frequency bands n257, n258, n259, n260, and n261 for 5G applications, supporting ultra-fast data rates and low-latency communication with ground-based radio navigation applications.

Beam steerable MIMO antenna based on conformal passive reflective metasurface for 5G millimeter wave applications

A conformal reflective metasurface fed by a dual-band multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna is proposed for low-cost beam steering applications in 5G Millimeter-wave frequency bands. The beam steering is accomplished by selecting a specific port of MIMO antenna. Each MIMO port is associated with a beam that points in a different direction due to a conformal reflective metasurface. This novel conformal metasurface antenna design has the advantages of higher gain, lower cost, a simpler feeding source, and a lower profile when compared to traditional reflective metasurfaces using bulky horn antennas and phased arrays with complex feeding networks and phase shifters for beam steering. The proposed beam steering antenna consists of a compact five-element dual-band MIMO and a 32×32\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$32 \ imes 32$$\\end{document} unit-cell conformal dual-band reflective metasurface placed at the top of the MIMO antenna to obtain the beam steering capability as well as gain enhancement. The proposed reflective metasurface has a stable response under oblique incidence angles of up to 600\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$60^0$$\\end{document} at 24 GHz and 38 GHz and its symmetric, single-layer structure, ensures polarization insensitivity and stable response under conformal conditions. The presented MIMO antenna design is not only compact but also offers a wideband response effectively covering the desired 5G mm-wave frequency bands. The overall size of the MIMO antenna alone is 70 ×\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\ imes$$\\end{document} 12 mm2\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$\\hbox {mm}^2$$\\end{document} with a maximum gain of 5.4 and 7.2 dB. It is further improved up to 13.1 and 14.2 dB at 24 and 38 GHz respectively, with a beam steering range of ś400\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$40^0$$\\end{document} by using a conformal reflective metasurface. Unlike the existing beam steering strategies, the suggested method is not only cost-effective but also increases the overall directivity and gain of the source MIMO antenna. The measured results agree with the simulated results, making it a potential candidate in the 5G and beyond beam steering applications.

The Beam Squint Effects in Antenna Arrays at Millimeter Bands

Beam squint phenomenon is considered one of the most drawbacks that limit the use of (mm-waves) array antennas; which causes significant degradation in the BER of the system. In this paper, a uniform linear array (ULA) system is exemplified at millimeter (mm-waves) frequency bands to realize the effects of beam squint phenomena from different directions on an equivalent gain response to represent the channel performance in terms of bit error rate (BER). A simple QPSK passband signal model is developed and tested according to the proposed antenna array with beam squint. The computed results show that increasing the passband bandwidth and the number of antenna elements, have a significant degradation in BER at the receiver when the magnitude and phase errors caused by the beam squint at 26 GHz with various spectrum bandwidths.

HAC-SAGIN: High-altitude computing enabled space-air-ground integrated networks for 6G

The space–air–ground integrated networks (SAGINs) provide a new paradigm for the evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT) networks by enhancing coverage and deploying computing resources near IoT devices, especially in emergency situations and disaster-hit regions. In the context of the IoT networks, aerial platforms such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and high-altitude platforms (HAPs) present in the air layer of SAGINs with access and aerial computing (AC) capabilities have the potential to significantly expand coverage, enhance performance, reduce delay and handle complex computation tasks for IoT devices. Seeking the stated prospect, we propose a high-altitude computing (HAC)-enabled SAGIN leveraging millimeter waves (mmWave) frequency range in which the IoT devices are provided access services by low-earth orbit satellites (LEO-SATs) and HAPs while the HAPs offer AC facility as well. Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) is used as a multiple access scheme with different clustering mechanisms in uplink (UL) and downlink (DL) communication. We aim to establish high-rate data transmission in DL along with minimizing the execution time of IoT devices offloading their data to the HAPs in UL communication. The mmWaves range is targeted to have high-rate data transmissions and NOMA implementation further enhances the bandwidth available for an individual IoT device. For efficient offloading in UL communication, we formulate an optimization problem aiming to minimize the execution time by using the Lagrangian function-based approach. Execution time is minimized by reducing the transmission and computation time, which is attained by the optimization of allocated power and computation resources. Simulation results demonstrate that the proposed HAC-SAGIN is able to establish high-rate transmissions in DL and exhibits a significant decrease in execution time in UL in contrast to the no optimization case. Optimum power assignment improves the achievable rate, leading to reduced transmission time, while optimum core assignment efficiently reduces the computation time. In addition, the offloaded data size-driven NOMA implementation in UL prominently improves the system effective throughput.

Implementation and Analysis of a Hybrid Beamforming Technique for 5G mmWave Systems

The advent of 5G technology has ushered in significant advancements in wireless communication, particularly through the utilization of millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequencies. However, the high path loss and susceptibility to blockages at mmWave bands necessitate efficient beamforming techniques to ensure reliable and high-capacity communication. This paper presents a comprehensive implementation and analysis of a hybrid beamforming technique tailored for 5G mmWave systems. By combining analog and digital beamforming, the proposed hybrid approach aims to balance the trade-offs between hardware complexity and beamforming flexibility. The study encompasses the design framework, simulation environment, performance metrics, and comparative analysis with existing beamforming methods. Results indicate that the hybrid beamforming technique significantly enhances spectral efficiency and energy consumption while maintaining manageable hardware costs, making it a viable solution for next-generation wireless networks.