Μm Polystyrene Particles Research Articles

Dielectrophoretic mobility determination in DC insulator‐based dielectrophoresis

Insulator-based dielectrophoresis (iDEP) is a powerful tool for separating and characterizing particles, yet it is limited by a lack of quantitative characterizations. Here, this limitation is addressed by employing a method capable of quantifying the DEP mobility of particles. Using streak-based velocimetry the particle properties are deduced from their motion in a microfluidic channel with a constant electric field gradient. From this approach, the DEP mobility of 1 μm polystyrene particles was found to be -2±0.4 10(-8) cm4 /(V2 s). In the future, such quantitative treatment will allow for the elucidation of unique insights and rational design of devices.

Moldless PEGDA-Based Optoelectrofluidic Platform for Microparticle Selection

This paper reports on an optoelectrofluidic platform which consists of the organic photoconductive material, titanium oxide phthalocyanine (TiOPc), and the photocrosslinkable polymer, poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA). TiOPc simplifies the fabrication process of the optoelectronic chip due to requiring only a single spin-coating step. PEGDA is applied to embed the moldless PEGDA-based microchannel between the top ITO glass and the bottom TiOPc substrate. A real-time control interface via a touch panel screen is utilized to select the target 15 μm polystyrene particles. When the microparticles flow to an illuminating light bar, which is oblique to the microfluidic flow path, the lateral driving force diverts the microparticles. Two light patterns, the switching oblique light bar and the optoelectronic ladder phenomenon, are designed to demonstrate the features. This work integrating the new material design, TiOPc and PEGDA, and the ability of mobile microparticle manipulation demonstrates the potential of optoelectronic approach.

Stepwise gray-scale light-induced electric field gradient for passive and continuous separation of microparticles

This article presents a gray-scale light-induced dielectrophoresis (GS-LIDEP) method that induces the lateral displacements normal to the through-flow for continuous and passive separation of microparticles. In general, DEP force only can affect the particles within very local areas due to the electric field is exponentially decayed by the distance away from the electrodes. Unlike with conventional LIDEP, a broad-ranged electrical field gradient can easily be created by GS pattern illumination, which induces DEP forces with two directions for continuous separation of particles to their specific sub-channels. Candiaalbicans were effectively guided to the specific outlet with the efficiency of 90% to increase the concentration of the sample below the flow rate of 0.6 μl/min. 2 and 10 μm polystyrene particles can also be passively and well separated using the multi-step GS pattern through positive and negative DEP forces, respectively, under an applied voltage of 36 Vp–p at the frequency of 10 kHz. GS-LIDEP generated a wide-ranged DEP force that is capable of working on the entire area of the microchannel, and thus the mix of particles can be passively and continuously separated toward the opposite directions by the both positive and negative GS-LIDEP forces. This simple, low cost, and flexible separation/manipulation platform could be very promising for many applications, such as in-field detections/pretreatments.

Continuous-flow particle and cell separations in a serpentine microchannel via curvature-induced dielectrophoresis

Particle and cell separations are critical to chemical and biomedical analyses. This study demonstrates a continuous-flow electrokinetic separation of particles and cells in a serpentine microchannel through curvature-induced dielectrophoresis. The separation arises from the particle size-dependent cross-stream dielectrophoretic deflection that is generated by the inherent electric field gradients within channel turns. Through the use of a sheath flow to focus the particle mixture, we implement a continuous separation of 1 and 5 μm polystyrene particles in a serpentine microchannel under a 15 kV/m DC electric field. The effects of the applied DC voltages and the serpentine length on the separation performance are examined. The same channel is also demonstrated to separate yeast cells (range in diameter between 4 and 8 μm) from 3 μm particles under an electric field as low as 10 kV/m. The observed focusing and separation processes for particles and cells in the serpentine microchannel are reasonably predicted by a numerical model.

A microfluidic multichannel resistive pulse sensor using frequency division multiplexing for high throughput counting of micro particles

In this work we demonstrate an on-chip multiplexed multichannel resistive pulse sensor (Coulter counter) for high throughput counting of microscale particles. The design, fabrication and testing of this device are presented. The high throughput counting is a result of using multiple parallel microfluidic channels to analyze the sample. Detection is achieved by using frequency division multiplexing; each microchannel is modulated with its own known and unique frequency, a combined measurement is made across a single pair of electrodes, and the measured signal is demodulated to determine the signal across each individual channel. Testing results using 30 µm polystyrene particles demonstrate that the throughput of the multiplexed device gets improved 300% over a single-channel device; this is achieved by simultaneously detecting particles through the device's four parallel channels. In addition, the ac modulation method used in this paper reduces the polarization effect on the microelectrodes, and thereby allows for measurement of the particle sizes with significantly reduced error. The multiplexed detection principle can be extended to a larger number of channels to further improve the throughput, without increasing the external detection electronics.

An impedimetric approach for accurate particle sizing using a microfluidic Coulter counter

In this paper, we present the design, impedimetric characterization and testing of a microfabricated Coulter counter for particle size measurement that uses a pair of thin film coplanar Au/Ti electrodes. An electrical equivalent circuit model of the designed device is analyzed. Accurate measurement of particle size was achieved by operating the device at a frequency for which the overall impedance is dominated by the channel resistance. A combination of design features, including the use of a pair of sensing electrodes with a surface area of 100 µm by 435 µm, a spacing of 1785 µm between the two sensing electrodes and a 350 µm long microchannel, ensures that this resistance dominates over a range of relatively low frequencies. The device was characterized for NaCl electrolyte solutions with different ionic concentrations ranging from 10−5 to 0.1 M. Results proved that the resistive behavior of the sensor occurs over a range of relatively low frequencies for all tested concentrations. The Coulter counter was then used to detect 30 µm polystyrene particles at a selected excitation frequency. Testing results demonstrated that the device can accurately measure particle sizes with small error. The design can be extended to ac Coulter counters with sub-micron sensing channels. Analysis of three designs of ac Coulter counters including sub-micron sensing channels using the electrical equivalent circuit model predicts that they can be operated at even lower frequencies, to accurately size nanoscale particles.

Negative dielectrophoresis‐based particle separation by size in a serpentine microchannel

Dielectrophoresis has been widely used to focus, trap, concentrate, and sort particles in microfluidic devices. This work demonstrates a continuous separation of particles by size in a serpentine microchannel using negative dielectrophoresis. Depending on the magnitude of the turn-induced dielectrophoretic force, particles travelling electrokinetically through a serpentine channel either migrate toward the centerline or bounce between the two sidewalls. These distinctive focusing and bouncing phenomena are utilized to implement a dielectrophoretic separation of 1 and 3 μm polystyrene particles under a DC-biased AC electric field of 880 V/cm on average. The particle separation process in the entire microchannel is simulated by a numerical model.

A unified platform for optoelectrowetting and optoelectronic tweezers

A platform capable of seamlessly unifying both optoelectrowetting and optoelectronic tweezers is presented. This enables the user to manipulate aqueous droplets (with electrowetting) as well as individual particles within those droplets (with dielectrophoresis). The device requires no photolithography and droplet/particle manipulation can occur continuously over the entire surface of the device. Droplet and 10 µm polystyrene particle speeds of up to 8 mm s(-1) and 60 µm s(-1), respectively, are demonstrated. Particle concentration within, and subsequent splitting of, a droplet is performed resulting in average concentration efficiencies of 93%. Serial concentration is also demonstrated resulting in exponentially increasing particle concentrations and a 10× concentration increase. Finally, the platform is used to select a single cell out of a cohort and subsequently encapsulate it in its own aqueous droplet.

Dielectrophoretically patterned carbon nanotubes to sort microparticles

This article compares the operation of a dielectrophoretic (DEP) platform before and after pattering carbon nanotubes (CNTs) between its microelectrodes. The diverse performance of the DEP system is assessed by separating 1 and 5 μm polystyrene particles. In the absence of CNTs, both particles can only be trapped by operating the system at low medium conductivities, (<10(-3) S/m) and frequencies (<75 kHz). Alternatively, applying CNTs to the system, some CNTs coat the surface of particles and increase their overall conductivity and permittivity, whereas the rest of them are patterned between the microelectrodes and induce strong DEP forces at their free ends, which can effectively trap the coated particles. The first development extends the range of medium conductivities and frequencies at which the trapping of both particles is achievable, whereas the second development facilitates the selective deposition of particles along the surface of curved microelectrodes. Setting the medium conductivity to 2×10(-3) S/m and the frequency to 20 MHz, most of 5 μm particles are trapped at the entry region of the first microelectrode pair, whereas most of 1 μm particles are trapped at the tips, and this distinction facilitates their separation. The trapping of 1 μm particles can be improved by decreasing the frequency to 1.5 MHz. This study demonstrates how the integration of CNTs into microfluidic systems enables them to operate beyond their capabilities.

Manipulation of microparticles using phase-controllable ultrasonic standing waves

A method of manipulating microparticles in a liquid using ultrasound is proposed and demonstrated. An ultrasonic standing wave with nodal planes whose positions are controllable by varying the relative phase of two applied sinusoidal signals is generated using a pair of acoustically matched piezoelectric transducers. The resulting acoustic radiation force is used to trap micron scale particles at a series of arbitrary positions (determined by the relative phase) and then move them in a controlled manner. This method is demonstrated experimentally and 5 μm polystyrene particles are trapped and moved in one dimension through 140 μm.

Sub-Kolmogorov resolution partical image velocimetry measurements of particle-laden forced turbulence

Previous studies have shown that a dilute dispersion of fine particles can either augment or attenuate the gas-phase turbulent kinetic energy (TKE). However, such turbulence modification is not accurately captured by numerical simulation models. A critical reason is that the models do not incorporate flow distortion occurring at small scales on the order of the particle diameter or the Kolmogorov scale. These scales are too small to be resolved by most experiments and simulations, so the small-scale effects remain poorly understood. The main objective of this study is to investigate experimentally the small-scale turbulence structures that affect the overall turbulence modification to improve understanding and prediction of the macroscopic turbulence modification. A high resolution particle image velocimetry (PIV) system was developed that provided two-dimensional velocity field measurements with a sub-Kolmogorov vector spacing of 60 μm. Measurements of gas-phase isotropic turbulence were performed in the facility developed by Hwang &amp; Eaton (Exp. Fluids, vol. 36 (3), 2004a, p. 444) in the presence of dispersed 500 μm glass, 250 μm glass or 250 μm polystyrene particles at mass loading ratio up to 0.45. The Reynolds number based on the Taylor microscale was 130 for the unladen case. The TKE was attenuated by up to 25 % in the presence of particles. The high-resolution measurements of the dissipation rate show that changes in the dissipation rate are smaller than changes to the TKE, in contrast to previous underresolved experiments. An analysis of a large set of PIV images allowed calculation of the average turbulence distortion around particles. The measurements also showed strong damping of the TKE and strong augmentation of the dissipation rate in a roughly spherical region surrounding the particles.

Exploitation of surface acoustic waves to drive size-dependent microparticle concentration within a droplet

Ultrafast particle and cell concentration is essential to the success of subsequent analytical procedures and the development of miniaturized biological and chemical sensors. Here, surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices were used to excite a MHz-order acoustic wave that propagates into a microlitre droplet to drive spatial concentration and separation of two different sized suspended microparticles. The rapid concentration process, occurring within just three seconds to facilitate spatial partitioning between the two particle species, exploited two acoustic phenomena acting on the suspended particles: the drag force arising from acoustic streaming and the acoustic radiation force, both driving particles in different directions. This study elucidates the very intricate and interesting interplay of physics between fluid drag and acoustic forcing on the particles within a droplet, and, for the first time, demonstrates the existence of a frequency-dependent crossover particle size that can be used to effect species partitioning: depending on the operating frequency of the SAW device and the particle size, it is possible to cause one phenomenon to dominate over the other. A theoretical analysis revealed the extent to which each force would affect the particle trajectory (particle size range: 2-31 μm), subsequently verified through experimentation. Based on these findings, 6 and 31 μm polystyrene particles were successfully partitioned in a water droplet using a 20 MHz SAW device. This study reveals the suitability of using acoustic actuation methods for the useful partitioning of particle species within a discrete fluid volume.

Optically induced electrokinetic concentration and sorting of colloids

We demonstrate an optically induced ac electrokinetic technique that rapidly and continuously accumulates colloids on a parallel-plate electrode surface resulting in a crystalline-like aggregation. Electrothermal hydrodynamics produce a microfluidic vortex that carries suspended particles toward its center where they are trapped by local ac electrokinetic hydrodynamic forces. We characterize the rate of particle aggregation as a function of the applied ac voltage, ac frequency and illumination intensity. Hundreds of polystyrene particles (1.0 µm) suspended in a low conductivity solution (2.4 mS m−1) were captured at a range of voltages (5–20 Vpp) and frequencies (20–150 kHz) with an optical power of approximately 20 mW. This technique was not restricted to near infrared (1064 nm) illumination and was also demonstrated at 532 nm. The sorting capability of this technique was demonstrated with a solution containing 0.5 µm, 1.0 µm and 2.0 µm polystyrene particles. This dynamic optically induced technique rapidly concentrates, sorts and translates colloidal aggregates with a simple parallel-plate electrode configuration and can be used for a variety of lab-on-a-chip applications.

Diamagnetic repulsion—A versatile tool for label-free particle handling in microfluidic devices

We report the exploration of diamagnetic repulsion forces for the selective manipulation of microparticles inside microfluidic devices. Diamagnetic materials such as polymers are repelled from magnetic fields, an effect greatly enhanced by suspending a diamagnetic object in a paramagnetic Mn 2+ solution. The versatility of diamagnetic repulsion is demonstrated for the trapping, focussing and deflection of polystyrene particles for three example applications. Firstly, magnet pairs with unlike poles facing each other were arranged along a microcapillary to trap plugs of differently functionalised particles for a simultaneous surface-based assay in which biotin was selectively bound to a plug of streptavidin coated particles utilising only 22 nL of reagent. Secondly, by slightly modifying the magnetic field design, the rapid focussing of particles into a narrow central stream at a flow rate of 650 μm s −1 was accomplished for particle pre-concentration. In a third application, 5 and 10 μm polystyrene particles were separated from each other in continuous flow by passing the particle mixture through a microfluidic chamber with a perpendicular magnetic field, a method termed diamagnetophoresis. The separation was investigated between flow rates of 20–100 μL h −1, with full resolution of the particle populations being achieved at 20 μL h −1. These experiments show the potential of diamagnetic repulsion for simple, label-free manipulation of particles and other diamagnetic objects such as cells for a range of bioanalytical techniques.

Experimental and theoretical analysis of DEP-based particle deflection for the separation of protein-bound particles

We present an experimental and theoretical analysis of dielectrophoretic (DEP) particle deflection in a microfluidic channel for the separation of protein-bound particles. A 2D electrode array with widely spaced bars is designed to deflect a particle at the exit of the fluidic channel by negative DEP force. When particles pass through the channel, the particle streams are deflected differently depending on the DEP characteristics of the particles. In this paper, we propose methodologies to characterize the DEP force with the deflection distance using comparative analyses of a simulation and an experiment. The deflection distances of the particles are measured as a function of the ac voltage applied and compared with full 3D simulations. The Clausius–Mossotti (CM) factor of a protein-bound particle is analyzed, based on frequency-dependent deflection distance data measured experimentally, and protein-bound particles are separated from a mixture with nonbound particles in a real application. Two particle groups, 2.3 µm and 6.4 µm polystyrene particles, were used for the simulation and experimental study, and the 6.4 µm diameter particles were selected as an adequate protein-binding substrate for the application of biomolecular detection. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was used as a test target protein. The particle's BSA binding is identified by the change in the particle's deflection distance. In particular, we used 1 wt% BSA as a target protein sample to investigate the deflection of 6.4 µm diameter particles as a function of protein concentration. The frequency-dependent CM factor curves for BSA-bound and nonbound particles are also calculated theoretically. Therefore, this paper shows a model analytic study on the biomolecular detection performance of a fabricated DEP-deflection microsystem. In addition, we present further significant analyses such as calculation of the electrical surface conductance of BSA around a particle, and we trace simulation errors. The surface conductance of particles treated with 1 wt% BSA was calculated to be 1.36 nS.

Enhanced particle filtration in straight microchannels using shear-modulated inertial migration

In this work, we introduce a novel method for enhanced particle filtration using shear-modulated inertial migration in straight microchannels. Depending on their size, inertial lift causes particles to migrate toward microchannel walls. Using microchannels with high aspect ratio cross sections, the fluidic shear can be modulated, resulting in preferential equilibration of particles along the longer microchannel walls. Due to large lift forces generated in these high aspect ratio channels, complete particle filtration can be achieved in short distances even at low flow rates (Re&amp;lt;50). Based on this principle, we use a straight microfluidic channel with a rectangular cross section to passively and continuously filter 1.9 μm polystyrene particles. Overall, the proposed technique is versatile and can be easily integrated with on-chip microfluidic systems for filtration of a wide range of particle sizes, from micro- to nanoparticles.

Vision-based feedback strategy for controlled pushing of microparticles

A strategy for controlled pushing is presented for microassembly of 4.5μm polystyrene particles on a flat glass substrate using an atomic force microscope probe tip. Real-time vision based feedback from a CCD camera mounted to a high resolution optical microscope is used to track particle positions relative to the tip and target position. Tip-particle system is modeled in 2D as a non- holonomic differential drive robot. Effectiveness of the controller is demonstrated through experiments performed using a single goal position as well as linking a series of target positions to form a single complex trajectory. Cell decomposition and wavefront expansion algorithms are implemented to autonomously locate a navigable path to a specified target position. Control strategy alleviates prob- lem of slipping and spinning during pushing.

Translocation of particles and inflammatory responses after exposure to fine particles and nanoparticles in an epithelial airway model

BackgroundExperimental studies provide evidence that inhaled nanoparticles may translocate over the airspace epithelium and cause increased cellular inflammation. Little is known, however, about the dependence of particle size or material on translocation characteristics, inflammatory response and intracellular localization.ResultsUsing a triple cell co-culture model of the human airway wall composed of epithelial cells, macrophages and dendritic cells we quantified the entering of fine (1 μm) and nano-sized (0.078 μm) polystyrene particles by laser scanning microscopy. The number distribution of particles within the cell types was significantly different between fine and nano-sized particles suggesting different translocation characteristics. Analysis of the intracellular localization of gold (0.025 μm) and titanium dioxide (0.02–0.03 μm) nanoparticles by energy filtering transmission electron microscopy showed differences in intracellular localization depending on particle composition. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles were detected as single particles without membranes as well as in membrane-bound agglomerations. Gold nanoparticles were found inside the cells as free particles only. The potential of the different particle types (different sizes and different materials) to induce a cellular response was determined by measurements of the tumour necrosis factor-α in the supernatants. We measured a 2–3 fold increase of tumour necrosis factor-α in the supernatants after applying 1 μm polystyrene particles, gold nanoparticles, but not with polystyrene and titanium dioxide nanoparticles.ConclusionQuantitative laser scanning microscopy provided evidence that the translocation and entering characteristics of particles are size-dependent. Energy filtering transmission electron microscopy showed that the intracellular localization of nanoparticles depends on the particle material. Both particle size and material affect the cellular responses to particle exposure as measured by the generation of tumour necrosis factor-α.

An Optimized In Vitro Model of the Respiratory Tract Wall to Study Particle Cell Interactions

As a part of the respiratory tissue barrier, lung epithelial cells play an important role against the penetration of the body by inhaled particulate foreign materials. In most cell culture models, which are designed to study particle-cell interactions, the cells are immersed in medium. This does not reflect the physiological condition of lung epithelial cells which are exposed to air, separated from it only by a very thin liquid lining layer with a surfactant film at the air-liquid interface. In this study, A549 epithelial cells were grown on microporous membranes in a two chamber system. After the formation of a confluent monolayer the cells were exposed to air. The morphology of the cells and the expression of tight junction proteins were studied with confocal laser scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Air-exposed cells maintained monolayer structure for 2 days, expressed tight junctions and developed transepithelial electrical resistance. Surfactant was produced and released at the apical side of the air-exposed epithelial cells. In order to study particle-cell interactions fluorescent 1 microm polystyrene particles were sprayed over the epithelial surface. After 4 h, 8.8% of particles were found inside the epithelium. This fraction increased to 38% after 24 h. During all observations, particles were always found in the cells but never between them. In this study, we present an in vitro model of the respiratory tract wall consisting of air-exposed lung epithelial cells covered by a liquid lining layer with a surfactant film to study particle-cell interactions.

Electrospun nanofibrous filtration membrane

This paper explores the viability of developing a fibrous membrane via electrospun nanofibrous web for liquid separation and demonstrates its applicability in particulate removal. Polyvinylidene fluoride nanofibers were electrospun into membranes and characterized to relate its structural properties to membrane separation properties and performance. Characterization of these electrospun membranes revealed that they have similar properties to that of conventional microfiltration membranes. The electrospun membranes were used to separate 1, 5 and 10 μm polystyrene particles. The electrospun membranes were successful in rejecting more than 90% of the micro-particles from solution. This work opens up the avenue of exploring the use of nanofibers for more mainstream application in the separation technology as a potential membrane for pre-treatment of water prior to reverse osmosis or as pre-filters to minimize fouling and contamination prior to ultra- or nano-filtration.