Mixed-income Housing Research Articles

Value Determinants in Mixed-Income Housing Developments

Value Determinants in Mixed-Income Housing Developments

Public assistance, living environments, and food insecurity: A comparative community case study

Food insecurity continues to affect certain seg­ments of the U.S. population at the household and individual levels even when the economy is experi­encing growth. This recognition has led to the design and implementation of food assistance programs, such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, targeting food hardship in low-income families. This is in addition to other types of government assistance, such as housing subsidies and public housing, as low-income households and individuals face similar challenges in housing security. Concern over “concentrated poverty” in traditional public housing environment has contributed to a shift toward mixed-income developments, envisaged to improve the living conditions and economic opportunities of public-housing residents. This paper provides a compara­tive assessment of food insecurity in traditional and mixed-income public housing communities. It also examines the effect of nonhousing public assis­tance on food insecurity and the temporal relation­ship between the timing of food hardship and the receipt of assistance. Administering a modified version of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)’s Household Food Security Module to the majority of residents in the two communities, the researchers found negligible differences in food insecurity between recipients and nonrecipients of government assistance. Nevertheless, government assistance appeared to improve the probability of being food secure as it interacted with living envi­ronments, suggestive of greater beneficial effect in the environment of mixed-income housing. The results show that the number of households experi­encing reduced food intake was lowest in the first two weeks and highest during the fourth week of the month.

Towards an equity-centred model of sustainable mobility: Integrating inequality and segregation challenges in the green mobility transition

Urban planners and transportation policy makers around the world are proposing initiatives for greener mobility, particularly by promoting higher urban development densities, active transport modes, and non-auto access to destinations. This Special Issue engages critically with the sustainable mobility and 15-Minute City concepts by outlining an Equitable Sustainable Mobility Model that integrates non-auto accessibility improvements with key daily activity destinations to establish a wider discussion on urban structure, segregation, equity and mobility. The papers collected in this Special Issue reveal that sustainable mobility solutions are only partial when detached from the underlying mechanisms of residential sorting and spatial patterns of daily activity spaces. An equitable shift towards greener mobility needs to (1) address rising levels of residential segregation by promoting neighbourhood-level mixed-income housing, (2) radically shift urban space from automobility to different greener forms of mobility, (3) address not only neighbourhood specific, but also metropolitan-level access challenges to key activity places, (4) focus on integrating broadly accessible and affordable travel modes, particularly active travel (walking and cycling) and public transit, and (5) develop e-mobility solutions that are accessible to diverse user needs and offer flexible inter-neighbourhood coverage.

DOES AN INCLUSIVE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT DEPRESS NEIGHBOURHOOD HOUSE PRICES? A CASE STUDY OF COSMO CITY, JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA.

South Africa joined the global world in building inclusive housing, known as Mixed Income Housing (MIH) as a way to integrate and transform residential markets previously distorted by the discriminatory apartheid regime. However, despite the benefits of MIHs in deconcentrating poverty while boosting housing supply, these inclusive neighbourhoods often experience amplified cases of ‘Not in My Back Yard’ (NIMBY) for various reasons. Thus, approval processes of these inclusive housing developments get to be highly contested in courts, which causes huge delays in their completion. The paper aims to investigate the effect of NIMBY on the price of houses in a mixed-income neighbourhood. The paper used a cross sectional hedonic model on houses sold in the neighbourhood of Cosmo City MIH. The limitation is that a typical and purposely selected Cosmo city case study may not be generalizable to South Africa at large. Results show that Cosmo City had negligible effects on neighbourhood house prices. This is rather surprising given the unfavourable perception encountered during its development. The practical implication is that improving infrastructure such as roads to reduce traffic congestion, building new schools, new hospitals, security services, and new shopping centers reduce pressure on available services and amenities making inclusive housing acceptable in its neighbourhood. The social implication is that inclusive housing developments default into supplying the much-needed social housing in South Africa. Scientifically measuring perception on accepting MIH development projects in well-established neighbourhoods does contribute to understanding the plight of housing shortage by the public in ways that accepts inclusivity from an investment point of view.

Creating mixed communities through housing policies: Global perspectives

ABSTRACT This introductory review essay examines some of the key concepts and approaches framing the ongoing debate around mixed communities and housing regeneration policies around the world. This review summarizes past positive and negative side effects of social mix reported in the extant international literature. It then describes social mix housing policies in the Global East and the Global South, including China, Japan, South Korea, sub-Saharan Africa, and Singapore. In moving forward, the review essay adopts Galster and Friedrichs’s challenge to think about the progressive reformation of a “social mix version 2.0”—what it might look like, and what the policy implications of such an improved version of social mix might be. Three policy implications are discussed: intentionality of social mix; mixed-income housing transit-oriented design; and learning from the Global East and Global South.

Low-income housing development in India: Strategies for income mixing and inclusive urban planning

ABSTRACT Federal housing programs in rapidly urbanizing countries like India are targeting the expansion of low-income housing stocks. However, most of these large-scale low-income housing developments occur in the urban peripheries, and they are cut off from opportunities and essential urban infrastructure. They not only indicate policy failure but also exacerbate urban segregation in growing cities. Federal policies to tackle these problems in India are geared toward relatively small-scale mixed-income initiatives like inclusionary housing and public-private partnerships. Evaluating these efforts based on four cases in the city of Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh, this paper expands the literature on social-mix and mixed-income housing initiatives that is dominated by studies from the Global North. It identifies multi-pronged approaches to address (1) the failure of the current Indian federal policy involving small-scale mixed-income initiatives, and (2) the need to integrate housing initiatives with urban development at multiple levels, especially in the urban peripheries.

The Use of Mixed-Income Housing Development to Address Poverty and Inequality, Based on Delphi Empirical Approach: A Case of South Africa

Since the dawn of democracy in 1994, the Republic of South Africa (RSA) has been trying to address the aftermath and consequences of the apartheid regime. This comprises of the socio-economic, spatial, and political challenges that have persisted over the decades. These have had far reaching repercussions in the society to the extent that 25 years later after apartheid, the country finds itself with alarming rates of poverty, social exclusion, unemployment, and inequality. Literature has revealed that there is a direct relationship between poverty and inequality as well as access to socio-economic services / opportunities. Poor access to these services perpetuates exclusivity and thus inequality and marginalisation in all form and character. The purpose of this study is to investigate how housing developments have been used in South Africa to address poverty and inequality. The aim is to understand how to plan for better and more socially and economically thriving communities through housing development, focusing specifically on aspects of development that contributes to addressing poverty and inequality.
 Using a Delphi three round method of Inquiry of 20 experts, perceptions from a diverse panel of experts about mixed-income housing development were uncovered. In comparison to previous housing models, the study uncovered a significant paradigm shift in housing development and what a housing intervention should achieve. Since 2004 after the introduction of the Breaking New Ground Policy (BNG), the housing development approaches, and interventions have shifted away from just providing roof over once head to providing social asset to the poor and a whole range economic opportunities. The conclusion is that housing development by virtue of location, diverse housing typologies and tenure options is now part and parcel of integrated planning and the pro poor development agenda.

State Affordable Housing Appeals Systems and Access to Opportunity: Evidence From the Northeastern United States

ABSTRACTIn many U.S. states, local governments exercise extensive control over land-use regulation. Much scholarly research indicates that local restrictions on multifamily residential development have contributed to rapid housing cost increases, particularly in the West Coast and the Northeast. Such evidence has led scholars and policymakers to advocate state intervention in local land-use regulation, in order to constrain local discretion over permitting multifamily housing. This article provides the most comprehensive comparison to date of housing outcomes associated with state affordable housing appeals systems (SAHASs) in the northeastern U.S. SAHASs enable developers of certain below-market-rate and mixed-income housing projects to request an override of local land-use regulation. We describe the essential attributes of a SAHAS and provide empirical data to assess housing outcomes in the four northeastern states where such systems have been adopted – Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. Our findings are consistent with previous claims that a SAHAS can increase access to opportunity, and that the Massachusetts system has been particularly effective. We conclude by discussing features of the Massachusetts system that may explain its relative efficacy, and we describe how state and federal policymakers could improve data collection practices related to state intervention in local land-use regulation.

Do high income households reduce driving more when living near rail transit?

Transportation planning today requires an understanding of how income and near-rail residence jointly influence household travel behavior. This article fills a gap in the literature by showing how vehicle miles traveled (VMT) and transit trips taken (TT) vary with income and rail transit access by neighborhood type. Results indicate that, when comparing households with similar incomes and examining how the “near-rail” versus “far from rail” VMT and TT gap varies by income, the cross-sectional reduction in nominal VMT and the increase in TT on a percentage basis is generally larger for higher-income households (>$50,000), and particularly so in neighborhoods dense with both jobs and population. These findings offer support for the notion that near-transit housing targeting higher-income households can have both sustainability and transit use benefits. We note, though, that equity considerations are a strong reason to include low-income housing near rail transit, and argue that policies focusing overly singly on either low-income or high-income housing near rail transit will not be as impactful as a robust focus on mixed-income housing developments in rail transit-oriented developments (TODs).

A post-occupancy evaluation study of a mixed-income gated community in Cibubur, West Java, Indonesia

Gated communities (GCs) have been demonized as a malicious form of urban segregation because they provide a secure neighbourhood and exclusive facilities. The objective of the Indonesian government policy related to balanced housing is to create mixed-income housing in order to foster interaction between social classes in neighbourhoods and reduce the alarming social gap. This study seeks to validate the occurrence of social interaction among different economic strata in a mixed-income GC. To understand social interaction among its residents, the reasons why residents from different economic strata selected their housing are examined. The research methodology includes a post-occupancy evaluation in a mixed-income GC in Cibubur, West Java, Indonesia, an area known for its high quality neighbourhoods and facilities. This study identifies security as a major housing preference factor for many people living in a mixed-income GC. However, the reduced exclusivity of such facilities decreases their usage frequency, giving rise to trans-cluster social interaction within the same class. This finding contradicts the objective of the balanced housing policy because the residents interact with others in a similar social class beyond the segregated walls of the housing clusters.

Resilience through transition: the effect of specific support systems on maternal well-being amidst root shock

Purpose: Federal public housing policy since the 1990s has aimed to decentralize poverty, including funding the demolition of high-density public housing in favor of low-density, mixed income housing. Meanwhile, research has shown that high-density public housing communities provide a network of instrumental and emotional support for residents. Thus, dismemberment of high-density public housing separates former residents from their social supports. The stress resulting from disruption of social infrastructure …

Accountability matters: beyond commitment, the role of accountability mechanisms in implementing plans in mixed income communities

This article explores the role of formal accountability mechanisms as a necessity to fulfill HOPE VI plan goals and the limitations of participant commitment during plan implementation. The presence of accountability mechanisms, such as a consent decree, often influences participation level, unit mix, tenant selection, design, and community building efforts during plan implementation. This article draws from a comparative case study of two mixed-income planning efforts in Chicago. This qualitative research illustrates the differences in project plan trajectories relative to their accountability mechanisms. My findings indicate a range of commitment varying across phases of development. In short, commitment matters at earlier stages of development, while accountability matters at the later stages of development. However, without accountability mechanisms in place, projects moved further away from intended project plans. Overall, this research suggests several ways to embed accountability mechanisms in the development of mixed-income housing.

Study on the perception of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan and attitude towards cleanliness among the residents of urban Jodhpur.

Context:Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (SBA) is an ambitious project and has been successful in bringing a difference at the facility and infrastructure level, and the objectives of this programme can be achieved if people are aware of this mission and basic sanitation and waste management practices.Aims:To assess awareness and perception of SBA and attitude towards cleanliness among the residents of urban Jodhpur.Settings and Design:A cross-sectional survey was done in the largest mixed-income housing society of Jodhpur.Methods and Materials:A semi-structured questionnaire was designed for data collection. Sample size was 400. Participants aged above 18 years were included in the study.Statistical Analysis Used:Descriptive and inferential statistical analysis was done using Epi Info Version 7.1. The data were evaluated using Chi-square test and P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.Results:Mean age of female participants were 30.02 ± 11.34 years and male participants were 34.92 ± 13.10 years. Mean perception about SBA for being able to communicate the importance of cleanliness was 4.8, i.e. lying between strongly agree and agree. No significant association was observed between educational status and attitude towards cleanliness (P < 0.005). A significant association was seen between gender and knowledge about SBA in terms of correctly mentioning the duration of the SBA programme (P > 0.005).Conclusions:Existing knowledge about SBA and perception towards cleanliness among participants were positive but still there is need of programmes and strategies that help in bringing positive behaviour among group of people who are reluctant towards adopting proper cleanliness, sanitation and hygiene practices.

What Should Be the Future of the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit Program?

ABSTRACTThis research examines the Low-Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) developments in metropolitan areas nationwide. The results indicate that the LIHTC program contributes to the spatial concentration of poverty as well as of racial and ethnic minorities. The program is not promoting mixed-income housing. The program is serving an income category with very little need for additional units and is not serving those with a need. Finally, the program is increasing the rental housing stock in soft markets and failing to increase the supply in tight ones. It is recommended that states adopt allocation standards that would deconcentrate poverty and affirmatively further fair housing. The benefits of the program should be reconfigured to promote mixed-income housing. The LIHTC program should permit states to exchange tax-credit authority for vouchers, to better serve the poorest households. The program should exercise greater rigor in market analysis so that new units are added only in tight markets and deteriorated units are rehabilitated elsewhere.

Impact of Four Physical Design Factors on Mixed-Income Housing

Impact of Four Physical Design Factors on Mixed-Income Housing

Revitalisation of a small US city: Assessing potential gentrification impacts of Middletown, Connecticut’s renaissance

This research focuses on Middletown, Connecticut’s revitalisation of its downtown and adjacent North End neighbourhood. In the early 1990s, these areas were considered blighted, with many boarded-up shopfronts and substandard housing structures that most city residents avoided entirely due to perceptions of crime. Since that time, the city government partnered with the North End Action Team (NEAT), a non-profit advocacy group, to advance key redevelopment projects, resulting in an award-winning renaissance of the downtown area. Downtown Middletown is now an attractive place for locals and visitors alike to stroll, dine and spend money. While the downtown has become desirable, it is not clear if this renaissance has resulted in gentrification-related displacement of existing low-income residents. This study assesses socioeconomic indicators commonly associated with gentrification and determines that, despite Middletown’s rapid transformation, residential displacement from gentrification has not yet occurred. The strong role of NEAT in advocating for the provision of mixed-income housing and for maintaining social service providers while the city began redeveloping a brownfield site into a business incubator are key factors in preventing widespread displacement of low-income residents.

Cities of stars: urban renewal, public housing regeneration, and the community empowerment possibility of governance constellations

ABSTRACTThis paper examines the implementation of the largest public housing regeneration programme in the United States, HOPE VI (Housing Opportunities for People Everywhere), which provided $6 billion in grants to facilitate the redevelopment of 260 sites. It begins by noting the wide variation in approaches to income mixing, with some HOPE VI projects skewed toward public housing retention and others emphasizing more inclusion of market-rate housing. To help explain this, the paper proposes that approaches to HOPE VI are rooted in previous experience with displacement through slum clearance, urban renewal and central highway construction from the 1940s through the 1970s. In some cities, this sparked lasting backlash from citizen groups sufficient to alter the structure of urban governance in ways that tempered the prior roles of the state and powerful private developers. The paper explains this shift in governance using the metaphor of ‘governance constellations.’ These constellations spatially represent the systems of key players (or ‘stars’) whose presence is able to shine most brightly in each given regeneration process. Rather than networks of infinite variety, the paper argues that there are four basic types of governance constellations, each with its orienting polestar in a different sector of the sky – skewed either towards the private sector (The Big Developer), the public sector (Publica Major), the not-for-profit sector (Nonprofitus), or the community sector (Plebs). To explore this, the paper draws upon examples from four cities-New Orleans, Boston, Tucson, and San Francisco-which illustrate each of these basic constellation types. There are important roles for community leaders in each type of constellation, but the constellations explain how and why some cities favoured housing large numbers of very poor households when redeveloping mixed-income housing while others placed more emphasis on higher-income households. At base, these differences reveal quite different attitudes toward community empowerment.

Barriers to Integrating New Urbanism in Mixed-Income Housing Plans in Chicago: Developer, Housing Official, and Consultant Perspectives

This article explores the barriers to implementing mixed-income development plans that incorporate the social (income) and physical (new urbanism) mixing goals of HOPE VI. I examine a comparative case study of three HOPE VI planning efforts in Chicago, Illinois, that exhibit different results. I draw from 25 in-depth interviews across three primary types of actors involved in the development process: developers, housing officials, and consultants. This research uses the perspectives of these key actors to identify the barriers that constrain the implementation of new urbanist designs. Current research indicates that mixed-income developments vary in their degree of income mixing and how new urbanist strategies are implemented. However, there is little consensus on why this is so. Findings indicate implementation of new urbanism is constrained by limited interagency coordination, restrictive design policies, low community buy-in, and exclusive marketing and occupancy practices. Overall, the research offers lessons learned from which I recommend changes in planning practices to assist actors in the consistent implementation of new urbanism in mixed-income developments.

Provision of local public goods in mixed income communities

Motivated by the success and wide implementation of the Mixed Income Housing model in the United States and other developed countries, we provide a spatial equilibrium model of jurisdiction formation to understand how jurisdictions composed of mixed-income communities provide local public goods. Individuals choose which local public good to attend on the basis of income, and there are individuals in the same location but with different income that choose different public goods at different distances. Importantly, there is an equilibrium where smaller jurisdictions are comprised of a higher proportion of poor individuals.

Linking Public Housing to Education: A Comparative Case Study of HOPE VI

This research examines the federally funded HOPE VI urban revitalization program’s influence on neighborhood public school performance. A comparative case study was conducted in two HOPE VI neighborhood public schools, one that improved significantly (Philadelphia), and one that experienced a decline (Washington DC). The analysis revealed several insights into neighborhood factors that may influence school performance: the most vulnerable residents were least likely to gain reentry, mixed income housing residents often opt out of traditional public schools, and partnerships between public housing and education officials have been historically overlooked.