Mitigation Hierarchy Research Articles

Conceptualising project environmental impact assessment for enhancement: no net loss, net gain, offsetting and nature positive

ABSTRACT With declining biodiversity worldwide, the need for development proposals to deliver positive, not negative, environmental outcomes is clear. Arguably, this is a long-standing goal of environmental impact assessment (EIA). This article explores the extent to which current project EIA practice can achieve enhancement, no net loss or a net gain of biodiversity and Nature Positive goals. Using reflexivity, a conceptual approach is applied to policies and examples from practice. The environmental enhancement goal of EIA is explained. The mitigation hierarchy is applied to a hypothetical mining example for accomplishing no net loss/net gain of biodiversity through offsets. Nature Positive is examined in relation to current EIA expectations and how it differs from the other positive outcomes concepts. To overcome the ‘controlled loss’ paradigm that typifies EIA practice, a major mindset change is needed. Recommendations include: (i) placing ‘enhance’ on top of the mitigation hierarchy; (ii) ensuring policies uphold ‘true offsets’ with provision to ‘say no’ to development for high biodiversity areas and performance outcomes accountability and (iii) developing legislative provisions for Nature Positive and how project EIA should address it. Practitioners are urged to ‘step up’ in their personal endeavours to advocate for such changes to deliver positive outcomes from EIA.

What are individual‐level nature amends? Rescaling biodiversity offsetting from the community members' perspective

AbstractEffective solutions to biodiversity loss are multidimensional, requiring engagement from diverse stakeholders across various sectors and commitment levels. In this context, voluntary actions from community members emerge as a valuable addition to the large‐scale nature conservation activities conducted by states and municipalities. Such actions complement biodiversity protection measures and legal requirements aimed at companies. This article delves into the rescaling of biodiversity offsetting to the community members level and explores it from the perspective of community members. Through workshops organized in four Finnish municipalities, participants were prompted to reflect on biodiversity offsetting in their daily lives. The results show community members' limited resources to conduct pro‐biodiversity actions and highlight their diverse interpretations of the topic. Beyond direct biodiversity‐enhancing action, like maintaining rural biotopes, eradicating alien species, or protecting forests, workshop participants called for indirect actions. These included education, eco‐taxes, and the development of sharing economies. Thus, rather than solely focusing on biodiversity offsetting or the mitigation hierarchy, these suggestions underscore the need for diverse pro‐biodiversity actions at the community member's level. Furthermore, the results highlight the need for support that enables community members and communities' work for biodiversity. Introducing the concept of nature amends addresses this need, enhancing the mitigation hierarchy's capacity to incorporate community members in nature conservation endeavors.

Biodiversity Offset Mechanisms and Compensation for Loss from Exceptional to Popular: Rediscovering Environmental Law

The use of compensatory mechanisms for biodiversity conservation, also known as biodiversity offsets, has increased significantly in recent decades. The Kunming Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework mentions them as an innovative scheme in support of substantially and progressively increasing the level of financial resources for biodiversity conservation. This article traces the origin of compensatory mechanisms in international environmental law and their development in transnational biodiversity governance. The article points to the shifts in the application of the biodiversity offsets: from the context of wetlands to other habitats and ecosystems; from its use in intergovernmental conventions to an increasing number of transnational (business) networks; and from an instrument of last resort to a source of additional funding for biodiversity conservation. In the evolution, compensatory mechanisms have been decoupled from their original purpose as an exceptional mitigation measure and a strong focus of environmental law on the preventive function. The increased rhetoric of commitment to no net loss, net gain, restoration, and the mitigation hierarchy has not been matched by an improved status of wetlands and other ecosystems. The processes within the biodiversity conventions (Ramsar and CBD) have accepted an ongoing destruction of nature and limited the role of environmental law to minimizing harmful impacts on nature and consolidating the decline, rather than shaping socio-ecological outcomes. An ambiguous position about the spread of compensatory mechanisms has been part and parcel of this; biodiversity conventions have neither endorsed nor distanced themselves from the application, promotion, and justification of compensatory mechanisms. To maintain the integrity of environmental law, the rules that prevent biodiversity loss need to be emphasised and enforced.

Preventive Archaeological Research in Overhead Electric Power Line’s Construction Zones

The article is dedicated to archaeological research within the limits of projected and existing overhead power lines in Ukraine. Based on the experience of the Scientific and Research Centre “Rescue Archaeological Service” of the Institute of Archaeology, the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, the results of such works were summarised and monument protection measures for avoiding or mitigating the negative impact on the archaeological heritage during the overhead power lines construction were proposed. In 2008–2024 the Center’s employees surveyed 1507.3 km of power lines 220‑750 kW and 2642 hectares of area within the 14–21 m wide right of way; 444 new and known archaeological objects were localised; monument protection measures for 342 objects were developed; 8946 m2 were excavated in places where supports installed on 40 archaeological sites; 30 archaeological sites were supervised; accounting documentation for 78 monuments was developed. According to the survey results the average archaeological objects occurrence index per one kilometer of the overhead power lines planned route was determined as 0.251. It has been confirmed that in the steppe zone and adjacent areas of the forest-steppe mounds and mound groups occur more often than the settlements that prevail in the forest and forest-steppe zones. The regularities in which each stage of research defines the task for the next and gradually narrows the scope of development areas have been determined: at the Feasibility study stage an area of more than 1200000 hectares was developed; at the Project stage 2642 ha were archaeologically surveyed; at the stage of Construction monument protection research is planned on an area of 28.27 hectares. The same trend applies to the archaeology objects number covered 1358, 444 and 342 objects respectively. Despite the research areas decreasing, their resource consumption and the cost of the archaeological methods used are increasing.The United Energy System of Ukraine is one of the largest in Europe. According to its promising development program it was planned to build a thousand km of new overhead power lines. However, the war made its corrections and to the new planning construction were added hundreds of kilometers of destroyed overhead lines and dozens of ruined electrical substations. Comparing such linear objects as highways or main pipelines a much smaller volume of earthworks is processed during the overhead lines construction and they too can potentially have a significant negative impact on the environment including cultural heritage. Therefore, preventive measures developed on the mitigation hierarchy principles should be implemented at all construction stages. Each cycle’s phase corresponds to a certain type of archaeological research: planning → preliminary archival and bibliographic research; design → archaeological investigations (surveys); construction → archaeological monument protection research; exploitation → monitoring. Such approach using ensures the optimal management adoption decisions and helps to avoid and/or reduce the potential negative impact on cultural heritage even at the first stages of the investment project development.

Big Cities, Big Impacts? A spatial analysis of 3,335 ecological offsets in France since 2012

This paper assesses the French policy of mitigation hierarchy, with the aim of no net loss of biodiversity, by studying the geographical aspects of the application of the concept of ecological offsets in equivalence between losses and gains using spatialized data. We seek to know whether the dynamics of urban and interurban development (notably built-up and transport infrastructures) lead to a spatially integrated implementation of biodiversity offsets taking into account local characteristics and areas under pressure from land artificialization. Our main finding reveals that the majority of ecological offsets are generated by projects related to transport infrastructures (38%) and urban planning and construction projects (23%). However, if there are fewer, the ecological offsets of projects such as waste storage or energy development are mostly located in natural preserved areas, revealing a potential risk of non additionnality of offset measures and a risk that the private sector (through ecological offsets) will gradually replace the state in the protection of biodiversity. Our analysis also points out that despite the diversity of projects, habitats and protected species across France, there is a typical spatial layout profile of ecological offsets, pleading for a “one size fits all” offsetting in the French policy context of tenuous regulators’ availability in time and competence level due to weakness of refresh training and downsizing of public services in the environment. This last result argues for a stronger control from environmental agencies between two tremendously tricky concepts of offsetting, the equivalence valuation methods and the adjustments coefficients (time delay and ecological risk), to drive ecological offsetting future decisions at local but above all regional- and national-level planning documents.

Evaluating offsetting as a component of biodiversity governance

AbstractBiodiversity offsetting is considered to be an innovative policy instrument to balance land use changes with conservation priorities. Although advocates have pushed to establish biodiversity offset markets for over 20 years and critics have contested the social and ecological implications of such policy innovations, in practice, offsetting schemes have been difficult to set up, replicate, and sustain over time. Observing the underperformance of biodiversity offsetting, we argue that a critical analysis is urgently needed. We identify a need to analyze offsetting in relation to other features of biodiversity governance rather than focus on the merits and flaws of offsetting as a standalone policy instrument. Using a set‐theoretic model, we consider how different institutional arrangements determine if and when biodiversity offsetting produces positive environmental outcomes. We find that offsetting adds to biodiversity governance only when three thorny challenges are met—muscular enforcement of environmental regulations, rigorous impact management aligned with the mitigation hierarchy, and the existence of evidence‐based and cost‐effective platforms for offsetting. Short of these conditions, outcomes are either uncertain or outright harmful to biodiversity. Reflecting more broadly on the prospects of institutionalizing offsetting mechanisms for protecting biodiversity, we conclude a need to recenter attention toward the supportive role of the state in facilitating effective policy innovations.

What Makes A Bank A Bank? Differences and Commonalities in Credit Calculation, Application, and Risks in Mitigation Banks Targeting Freshwater Fish Species and Associated Ecosystems.

Mitigation banking is part of the ever-expanding global environmental market framework that aims to balance negative approved anthropogenic impacts versus third-party provided ecosystem benefits, sold in the form of credits. Given the need to conserve freshwater biodiversity and habitat, banking has received great traction for freshwater species and systems. While extensive reviews and studies have been conducted on evaluating if equivalency between impacts and offset can be achieved, there is almost no research being done on the way credits are being generated and banks are managed to inform future best practice and policy. Synthesizing banking data through cluster analyzes from 26 banks in the United States generating credits for freshwater species and associated systems, we show two generalizable approaches: removing barriers and targeting whole communities. Both address crucial freshwater conservation needs but come with their risks and caveats. Using common characteristics and management practices founded in federal and district level guidance within these two groups, we showcase and conclude that credit generation via barrier removal can be at risk of granting credit generation for too large of an area, leading to over-crediting. Banks targeting whole freshwater communities and accounting for landscape-level interactions and influences can potentially be detrimental for species on an individual level and large-scale credit availability as well as transfer can incentivize non-compliance with the mitigation hierarchy.

Indicators to quantify biodiversity gains for compensation and mineland rehabilitation in the Eastern Amazon.

To connect the protection of natural resources to economic development, environmental rehabilitation is a promising way to repair and compensate for impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services. Here, we aimed to compare and select potential indicators for the success of different rehabilitating ecosystems to quantify gains in biodiversity and ecosystem services within the Impact Mitigation Hierarchy. We sampled nine environmental variables along rehabilitation chronosequences from rehabilitating (i) iron mining waste piles, (ii) sand quarries, and (iii) compensation areas in the Carajás National Forest. From that, we computed the rehabilitation status, i.e., the proportion of environmental enhancements compared to the overall rehabilitation trajectory, and statistically validated the indicators that best described the status. With a mean rehabilitation status for the oldest rehabilitation stages from waste piles, sand quarries, and compensation areas of 52, 71, and 74%, respectively, we confirmed that rehabilitation activities were able to generate considerable gains in biodiversity. In all the cases, the Shannon diversity, phylogenetic diversity and Leaf Area Index performed better than did the other indices, encouraging the increased use of these indices for upscale monitoring activities. Consistent indicators across distinct projects highlight the importance of maximizing tree diversity and canopy closure in rehabilitation projects to increase biodiversity gains within Impact Mitigation Hierarchy.

Potential and Mitigation Analysis of Nipah Beach Forest Ecosystem Changes, North Lombok Regency as a Sea Turtle Habitat

The Nipah beach forest in Malaka Village is used as a nesting habitat for sea turtles, which are protected and endangered wild animals in Indonesia. In current conditions, the Nipah Beach forest ecosystem is faced with development, economic growth, and the community's high demand for land so the integrity of the turtle habitat in the area is threatened. Analysis of potential changes in wildlife habitat is important to carry out at Nipah Beach, Malaka Village, and is interrelated with efforts to prepare plans and strategies for handling and protecting turtle biodiversity itself. This research aims to 1). Knowing the characteristics of turtle diversity in the Nipah Beach forest area, North Lombok Regency. 2). Changes potential analyzing for Nipah Beach forest ecosystem, North Lombok Regency as a sea turtle habitat. 3). Develop a mitigation plan for changes in the Nipah Beach forest ecosystem, North Lombok Regency as a sea turtle habitat. Measuring sea turtle diversity was carried out using the observation method, while risk analysis of habitat change in this study was carried out using risk analysis techniques using SNI/ISO 31010, and mitigation plans were prepared using the Mitigation Hierarchy. The results obtained were analyzed using risk analysis based on AS/NZS Australian/New Zealand Risk Management Standard 4360 (2004). The conclusions of this research are: 1). Sea turtle diversity on Nipah Beach consists of three species, namely the Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), and Olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys Olivacea). The important habitat for turtles on Nipah Beach is at stations 2, 3 and 5. 2). Potential changes to the Nipah Beach forest ecosystem are divided into five degrees of change, from mild to disaster. The highest degree of change occurs if the important nesting habitat of the Hawksbill turtle (Critical Endangered IUCN) is disturbed/lost on a large scale. 3). Mitigation steps in protecting the Nipah Beach forest ecosystem for sea turtle habitat consist of avoiding, minimizing, rehabilitation and balancing

Gaps between Stakeholders` Concerns and Mitigation Measures in ESIA Reports of Geothermal Energy Projects: A Case Study of Geothermal Energy Projects in Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya

Geothermal energy serves as a viable alternative to fossil fuels in developing countries, catering to electricity needs, supporting socio-economic development, and striving towards sustainable development goals. It also poses potential negative impacts on the environment and society. This study conducted a comparative analysis of mitigation measures and stakeholders' concerns across eight environmental and social impact assessment reports (ESIA) for geothermal energy development projects in Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya. Mitchell's mitigation hierarchy guideline (1997) was used to examine the purpose of 708 proposed mitigation measures for eight environmental and nine social criteria extracted from the literature and then a deductive qualitative content analysis were used to categorize these measures according to 18 criteria collected from the literature. Additionally, using an inductive qualitative content analysis, the study analysed 680 stakeholders' concerns sourced from public participation materials in the ESIA reports, identifying four main thematic categories and twenty-two subcategories. Stakeholders expressed concerns predominantly about socio-economic (52%) and development matters (20%), while ESIA reports offered fewer social mitigation measures (28.7%) compared to environmental ones (71.3%). Nonetheless, a strong correlation between the environmental and social mitigation measures proposed for our 17 criteria demonstrates a higher proportion of measures in power plant construction projects. Despite this, communities voiced apprehensions about new involuntary resettlement plans, economic opportunities, and unrealized corporate social responsibility (CSR) projects. Furthermore, the study revealed that local communities complained about the adverse effects of previous geothermal development projects, including air, water, and soil pollution, impacting their health, crop production, and livestock. This research highlights the discrepancy between stakeholders' concerns and mitigation measures in ESIA reports, attributed to possible inadequacies in the conduct of social impact assessment and public participation, leading to misunderstandings regarding project impacts and benefits among local communities. To address these issues, this paper recommends a more comprehensive understanding of social aspects, the consideration of cumulative impacts from other geothermal projects in the same area, and transparent communication to avoid unrealistic or costly promises during the realization of ESIA reports for geothermal energy projects

'Nature positive' must incorporate, not undermine, the mitigation hierarchy.

'Nature positive' must incorporate, not undermine, the mitigation hierarchy.

The impact assessment: A hidden form of flexibility in the mitigation hierarchy

Mitigation hierarchy is applied in many countries to avoid, reduce and compensate for impacts on the environment due to development projects. The design and sizing of measures thus depend directly on the assessment of impacts. However, this assessment is rarely framed by precise methods and is based on ad hoc evaluation that are carried out by environmental consultants by relying on own and more or less sophisticated methods. This article thus proposes to start from the ground up to analyse how impacts on biodiversity are assessed in practice, according to what method, and for what results. A statistical analysis was performed on 29 environmental assessments. We hypothesize that project size and number of species impacted are positively correlated with large impacts; and that measures and their costs are positively correlated with high impact reduction and low compensation. No correlation could be found for any of the factors studied. This result shows that there is considerable flexibility in the assessment of impacts, leading to inconsistent treatment of impacts. In the absence of a standardized method, this should encourage the adoption of sizing rules that compensate for uncertainties.

Offset sizing tools: A review of practices used in the field and their operationality

The mitigation hierarchy (avoid, minimize, restore/rehabilitate and, lastly, offset or compensate) is one of the key regulatory mechanisms that exists to include biodiversity protection in land-use planning. Implementing the mitigation hierarchy requires the use by practitioners (developers, environmental consultants and government agencies) of operational mitigation assessment methods, or offset sizing methods. This study focused on one aspect of operationality: usefulness. Through an approach based on ergonomics, we analysed practices used in the field in order to concretely identify in what way an offset sizing method is useful to developers, consultants and public officials. The findings showed that sizing offset measures is a collective process involving all these stakeholders, that these practitioners vary significantly in their level of knowledge about ecology and their degree of expertise in the mitigation hierarchy, and that each method is not equally useful for each type of stakeholder. Our conclusion is that to improve operationality, these methods must be adapted into tools that are relevant to the specific user and context.

Accounting for unintended ecological effects of our electric future: Optimizing lithium mining and biodiversity preservation in the Chilean High-Andean wetlands

The intersection of mining activities and the preservation of fragile ecosystems presents a challenge, exemplified by the coexistence of lithium resources and the pristine High-Andean wetlands. In this study, we demonstrate the transformative potential of accounting for the intrinsic non-use values associated with these vital wetlands. By incorporating these values, we not only reshape optimal mining patterns but also forge a path towards enhanced environmental conservation. To quantify the value of affected biodiversity and ecosystems, we employ a meta-analytic benefit transfer function. Subsequently, we integrate these values into a competitive land use model that treats ecosystem services as valuable assets and incorporates the opportunity costs associated with mining activities. The results of our study reveal a compelling narrative: when the value of wetland ecosystems is considered, the pace of lithium extraction is markedly affected. The extent of this impact varies depending on factors such as wetland size, ecosystem service value, damage levels, and resource rents. By quantifying the ecological impacts of mining in economic terms, our findings present an avenue for policymakers to design a mineral extraction tax that complements a mitigation hierarchy to conserve these precious ecosystems.

Ecosocial compensation of nature-based social values in Turku, South-West Finland

Complementary building is one of the key objectives in current urban planning as cities attempt to mitigate climate change. However, this development often reduces the urban green space. This incremental encroachment can negatively affect both the well-being of residents and biodiversity. Compensation is a way to safeguard the urban green space under the pressure of complementary construction. In the spirit of creative democracy, in this study, we examined the preconditions for ecosocial compensation and the mitigation of the harmful effects of incremental encroachment, as well as the mitigation hierarchy, in the context of land-use planning. We organised three workshops for planners and civil society associations at which we examined the preconditions for ecosocial compensation and other mitigation options using co-creation methods. We also carried out a PPGIS survey for the residents of Turku and were able to insert one question into the voting advice application of the municipal election in 2021. Our results show that there is a need for a new kind of information regarding nature-based social values when considering mitigation options and compensation. A comprehensive planning approach instead of incremental planning practices is important for considering compensation. Residents’ initiative is essential in the ecosocial approach, and the compensation process may become a way for residents to step up and introduce concerns and new opportunities to the public discussion and actual decisions about urban green space.

No net loss of connectivity: Conserving habitat networks in the context of urban expansion

Increasing urbanisation calls for careful landscape conservation planning to maintain biodiversity in urban areas. Urbanisation not only decreases the amount and quality of habitats, but it also affects habitat connectivity, which is crucial for species’ long-term persistence. The mitigation hierarchy approach of avoiding, reducing and offsetting the negative impacts of development projects is a powerful tool to prevent biodiversity loss. However, this process is typically used at the local scale and on a project-by-project basis, ignoring the cumulated effects of several projects on habitat connectivity. We applied a landscape-level approach to the mitigation hierarchy to achieve no net loss of connectivity during urban planning. Using spatial graphs, we assessed avoidance, reduction and offsetting scenarios for mitigating the impact of ten urban development projects in the city of Jyväskylä, Finland, here focusing on the habitat network of the endangered Siberian flying squirrel (Pteromys volans). We found a negative impact of urban development on network connectivity and prioritised habitat patches and corridors, which should be maintained to avoid and reduce the impacts. The no net loss of connectivity was achieved by adding new habitat patches in locations that maximise connectivity. We also found that the results were highly sensitive to variations in the dispersal distance of the focal species used in the connectivity model. An inadequate reference value for this parameter may lead to underestimation of the impacts of development projects and, therefore, insufficient mitigation actions. With a case study, we showed that spatial graph analysis can support decision-making by identifying and prioritising the actions needed to maintain habitat connectivity in urban landscapes.

Investigating the implementation of the mitigation hierarchy approach in environmental impact assessment in relation to biodiversity impacts

Global loss of biodiversity has directly and indirectly been caused by human activities. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) attempts to address the loss of biodiversity caused by development projects, by avoiding, reducing or compensating the loss (in that order following the mitigation hierarchy approach). Evidence suggests that in practice the mitigation hierarchy is not always applied correctly, and that monitoring is frequently absent, or flawed, meaning that the success of the mitigation measures, and their associated biodiversity outcomes, remain unknown. However, there is no literature that has systematically examined the application of the mitigation hierarchy and assessed the effectiveness of associated monitoring in an EIA system. This study fills that gap using Chile as an example because of its high biodiversity setting, and ease of access to EIA-related data. The results indicate that the use of compensation measures exceeded what would be expected from correct implementation of the mitigation hierarchy, and that there was also some misclassification of the measures. Monitoring studies focused on inspecting implementation of mitigation measures rather than measuring biodiversity outcomes (meaning that mitigation effectiveness cannot be fully evaluated). Further, there was a focus on specific elements of ecosystems and lack of consideration for broader biodiversity implications. Thus, the findings raise some concerns over the ability of EIA to achieve its goals of zero net loss of biodiversity. We make suggestions to improve the mitigation and monitoring aspects of the EIA process in Chile and would suggest that the recommendations are likely to have wider relevance to other jurisdictions.

Implementing Biodiversity Offsetting in Alignment with the Mitigation Hierarchy – the Experience of Land Use Planning Law in New South Wales

Abstract Biodiversity offsetting is firmly established as an integral part of environmental law regimes across the world. Whether offsets are appropriate for a particular development is determined through the application of a mitigation hierarchy. Whilst a rich vein of scholarship exists dealing with the operation of the mitigation hierarchy in principle, the implementation of the mitigation hierarchy has received comparatively small coverage. From a legal perspective this prompts questions relating to the implementation of the mitigation hierarchy as part of the planning law process. This article critically examines the issue in the context of laws regulating biodiversity loss in the state of New South Wales (NSW), Australia. The article contributes to filling this gap through a critical analysis and evaluation of the statutory regime and specific examples of relevant case law in NSW where development applications have been rejected on the basis, broadly speaking, of failing to demonstrate adherence to the requirements of the mitigation hierarchy. The primary findings presented by the article maintain that the extent to which decision-makers can influence and enhance biodiversity protection through implementation of the mitigation hierarchy is inherently limited due to the underlying rationale and values of planning law. While the decisions carry value in terms of showing what might be reasonably expected from developers in terms of demonstrating how their development applications adhere to the mitigation hierarchy, change that has broader application and can be applied in a more objective manner must be provided through legislative or regulatory change. The experience of NSW can offer some lessons for the implementation of biodiversity offsets in different jurisdictions considering the recent 15th Conference of the Parties (COP) on the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF).

An assessment of the potential environmental effects of bridge construction in Boga, Patuakhali, Bangladesh

Bangladesh Road Transport Authority announced a plan to build a bridge over the Lohalia River in Boga, Patuakhali, which will significantly modify the entire communication system and lead to significant economic empowerment in the southeastern part of Bangladesh. This study was designed to help decision-makers through the identification and evaluation of all potential social and environmental consequences of this proposed project using an integrated methodology combining GIS mapping, environmental impact value assessment, and critical evaluation of the environmental impact through the Leopold matrix. The necessary information required for this study has been collected through questionnaire surveys, participatory community risk assessments (CRA), focused group discussions, key informant interviews, and reviews of previously published documents. According to this study, the proposed Boga Bridge construction will have some adverse environmental consequences including agricultural land and productivity loss, the decline of ecosystem health, extinction of endangered species, deterioration of water, air and soil quality, sedimentation and changes in river flow. Despite these adverse impacts this project will improve the life and livelihood of the coastal community and foster economic growth and industrialization over the long run through easily assessable road transportation. Additionally, the estimated overall environmental impact value (−2) and Leopold matrix's impact value (−1.51) revealed that this project has low adverse effects on the surrounding environment. Moreover, the majority of the environmental consequences were found to be transient because they were only limited to the construction phase which makes it simple to control with the proper implementation of appropriate mitigation strategies. Therefore, this study furnished some effective mitigation strategies incorporating mitigation hierarchy principals to avoid and minimize adverse impacts as well as enhance the positive impacts of this project. Finally, this study recommends constructing the proposed Boga Bridge after ensuring rigorous implementation and monitoring of all impact mitigation strategies proposed in this study.

Genetics as a novel tool in mining impact assessment and biomonitoring of critically endangered western chimpanzees in the Nimba Mountains, Guinea

AbstractWestern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are Critically Endangered and Guinea is a key stronghold for this subspecies. However, Guinea is also rich in minerals with some of the highest‐grade iron‐ore deposits in the world. Specifically, the Nimba Mountains, home to western chimpanzees, is one of the sites under consideration for mining activities. To assess the impact of mining activities in the area, we used non‐invasive genetic sampling to estimate chimpanzee population size, sex ratio, community composition, and range boundaries on the western flank of the massif. The level of genetic diversity and affinity between communities was estimated and recommendations for future genetic censusing provided. Between 2003 and 2018, we collected 999 fecal samples of which 663 were analyzed using a panel of 26 microsatellites. We identified a minimum of 136 chimpanzees in four communities, with evidence of migratory events, a high level of shared ancestry and genetic diversity. We assessed sampling intensities and capture rates for each community. Saturation was reached in two communities with sampling between 3.2 and 4.3 times the estimated number of chimpanzees. Our findings highlight the utility of genetic censusing for temporal monitoring of ape abundance, as well as capturing migratory events and gauging genetic diversity and population viability over time. We recommend genetic sampling, combined with camera trapping, for use in future Environmental and Social Impact Assessments, as these methods can yield robust baselines for implementing the mitigation hierarchy, future biomonitoring and conservation management.