Flood Risk Mitigation Research Articles

Flood risk assessment for Indian sub-continental river basins

Abstract. Floods are among India's most frequently occurring natural disasters, which disrupt all aspects of socio-economic well-being. A large population is affected by floods, which leave their footprints through human mortality, migration, and damage to agriculture and infrastructure, during almost every summer monsoon season in India. Despite the massive imprints of floods, sub-basin level flood risk assessment is still in its infancy and requires advancements. Using hydrological and hydrodynamic models, we reconstructed sub-basin level observed floods for the 1901–2020 period. Our modeling framework includes the influence of 51 major reservoirs that affect flow variability and flood inundation. Sub-basins in the Ganga and Brahmaputra river basins witnessed substantial flood inundation extent during the worst flood in the observational record. Major floods in the sub-basins of the Ganga and Brahmaputra occur during the late summer monsoon season (August–September). While the Beas, Brahmani, upper Satluj, upper Godavari, middle and lower Krishna, and Vashishti are among the sub-basins influenced by the presence of dams on downstream flood dynamics, the Beas, Brahmani, Ravi, and lower Satluj sub-basins are the most impacted by floods and the presence of dams. Bhagirathi, Gandak, Kosi, lower Brahmaputra, and Ghaghara are India's sub-basins with the highest flood risk. Our findings have implications for flood risk assessment and mitigation in India.

Projecting Flood Risk Dynamics for Effective Long‐Term Adaptation

AbstractFlood losses have steadily increased in the past and are expected to grow even further owing to climate and socioeconomic change. The reduction of flood vulnerability, for example, through adaptation, plays a key role in the mitigation of future flood risk. However, lacking knowledge about vulnerability dynamics, which arise from the interaction between floods and the ensuing response by society, limits the scope of current risk projections. We present a socio‐hydrological method for flood risk assessment that simulates the interaction between society and flooding continuously, including changes in vulnerability through collective (structural) and private (non structural) measures. Our probabilistic approach quantifies uncertainties and exploits empirical data to chart risk dynamics including how society copes with flooding. In a case study for the commercial sector in Dresden, Germany, we show that increased adaptation is necessary to counteract the expected four‐fold growth in flood risk due to transient hydroclimatic and socioeconomic boundary conditions. We further use our holistic approach to identify solutions for effective long‐term adaptation, demonstrating that integrated adaptation strategies (i.e., combined structural and non structural measures) can reduce the average risk by up to 60% at the study site. Ultimately, our case study highlights the benefit of the model for robust flood risk assessment as it can capture unintended, adverse feedbacks of adaptation measures such as the levee effect. Consequently, our socio‐hydrological method contributes to a more systemic and reliable flood risk assessment that can inform adaptation planning by exploring the possible system evolutions comprehensively including unlikely futures.

Willingness to pay for flood risk mitigation among residents living near river’s confluence in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Both property buyers and owners are concerned about the impact of flooding on residential property price. Although several studies have investigated the possibility of property devaluation in flood-prone areas, there are still few that have looked into the effects of flooding on residential properties in Sriharjo, Imogiri, Indonesia. This study aims to examined housing characteristics such as structure, neighborhood, and environment on residential property value. We also created an interaction variable between flood and structural attributes to see whether the impact of flood inundation on property value varies depending on the age of the building, the size of the building area, and the number of bedrooms. Using the hedonic pricing model, we found that flooding reduces the market value of residential property value. The characteristics of property like land square, building square, building age, and number of rooms have influence on property price. The characteristics of neighborhoods are also influence to property price such as distance to city, distance to main road, distance to school and distance to the river. Only one environmental characteristic which influence to property price is height of flood inundation. We discovered that, on average, a rise in the amount of flood inundation decreased property prices in the research region by.015% by using a two-stage estimating approach to evaluate these associations. We calculated IDR 698,500 as the marginal implicit cost of reducing flood inundation. According to subsequent estimates, homeowners would be ready to pay an extra 0.685 percent for a decrease in flood inundation. The study’s findings will help property owners better understand the elements that contribute to property depreciation due to floods. This paper also suggests flood insurance plans since flooding is a significant issue for real estate owners.

Micro-Catchments, Macro Effects: Natural Water Retention Measures in the Kylldal Catchment, Germany

Floods are among the most devastating and financially burdensome natural disasters in Europe. The combined impact of climate change and land use change is expected to exacerbate and intensify the destructive consequences of river floods. In this study, we analysed the effects of wetland restoration on peak and base flows and on water quality in the Kylldal catchment of the Kyll River in the German Middle Mountains using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool+ (SWAT+). Monthly median daily discharge increases varied between 3% and 33% in the studied (micro)catchments. The higher median flow rates show that discharge peaks were attenuated and distributed over a longer period, making both extreme peak flows and low flows less common. Peak flows tended to decrease, with the largest effects between late fall and early spring when peak flow values decreased by up to 18%. The annual maximum peak flows in each of the three micro-catchments decreased by 12–24% on average. The occurrence of daily average flow rates larger than 1 m3 s−1 was up to 45% lower after wetland restoration. Low flows increased by up to 21% and 13% in the summer and fall, respectively, which suggests that drought risk also decreases after wetland restoration. Average nitrogen exports decreased by 38–50% in the project areas and by 20% at the catchment level. Average phosphorus exports decreased by 52–67% in the project areas and by 25% at the catchment level. The study highlights the potential of wetland restoration for improving hydrological services, mitigating flood risks, and enhancing water quality. Restoring and maintaining freshwater ecosystems and their natural sponge functions is crucial for effectively managing water resources and addressing the challenges posed by climate change and land use changes.

Urban resilience against environmental disasters: Comparing Lagos and New York

Urban resilience against environmental disasters is a critical aspect of sustainable urban development, particularly in megacities like Lagos and New York, which face diverse environmental challenges. This review examines the comparative analysis of urban resilience strategies in Lagos, Nigeria, and New York City, USA, focusing on their responses to environmental disasters. Both cities encounter distinct environmental hazards, including flooding, hurricanes, and heatwaves, albeit within different socio-economic contexts. Lagos, Africa's most populous city, grapples with rapid urbanization, inadequate infrastructure, and informal settlements, exacerbating its vulnerability to environmental disasters. In contrast, New York City, a global financial hub, confronts challenges posed by its dense urban fabric, aging infrastructure, and coastal exposure. Despite differing contextual factors, both cities strive to enhance their resilience through various strategies. Lagos employs a mix of top-down and bottom-up approaches, emphasizing community engagement, early warning systems, and infrastructure improvements to mitigate flood risks. Initiatives such as the Lagos State Resilience Strategy and the implementation of green infrastructure projects signify efforts to enhance adaptive capacity and reduce vulnerability. Conversely, New York City adopts a multifaceted approach, integrating policy frameworks, technological innovations, and community-based initiatives to bolster resilience. Post-Hurricane Sandy, the city launched the "OneNYC" plan, emphasizing infrastructure upgrades, coastal protection measures, and climate adaptation strategies to withstand future shocks. Comparative analysis reveals both convergences and divergences in urban resilience strategies. While Lagos prioritizes grassroots involvement and low-cost solutions, New York emphasizes institutional coordination and investment in resilient infrastructure. Challenges persist in both contexts, including funding constraints, governance issues, and socio-economic disparities, underscoring the need for holistic and inclusive resilience frameworks. Understanding the nuances of urban resilience in diverse contexts can inform policy interventions and best practices transferable across cities globally. By examining the experiences of Lagos and New York, this review contributes to the discourse on building resilient cities capable of navigating environmental uncertainties and safeguarding the well-being of urban populations.

Impact of Structural and Non-Structural Measures on the Risk of Flash Floods in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: A Case Study of the Gash River, Kassala, Eastern Sudan

Sediment precipitation in riverbeds influences the effectiveness of structural and non-structural measures for flash flood mitigation and increases the potential for flooding. This study aimed to disclose the effectiveness of the implemented measures for flood risk mitigation in Kassala town, eastern Sudan. We employed remote sensing (RS) and GIS techniques to determine the change in the Gash River riverbed, the morphology, and the leveling of both the eastern and western sides of the river. Flood model simulation and a 3D path profile were generated using the digital elevation model (DEM) with a data resolution of 12.5 m from the ALOS BILSAR satellite. The main purpose of this study is to extract the layer of elevation of the riverbed on both the western and eastern banks and to determine the variations and their relationship to flood occurrence and mitigation. The construction of dikes and spurs near Kassala town has led to sediment precipitation, causing the riverbed to rise. The results show that it is now 1.5 m above the eastern Kassala town level, with a steep slope of 2 m/km, and the cross-section area at Kassala bridge has shrunk, which indicates that the bridge body will partially impede the river’s high discharge and increase the potential for flood risk in the study area. The eastern part of Kassala town has a higher likelihood of flooding than the western side. This study suggests redesigning structural measures like widening the Gash River, extending Kassala bridge for normal water flow, strengthening early warning systems, and implementing soil conservation activities for normal water flow.

An Analysis of Stream Flow and Flood Frequency: A Case Study from Downstream of Kelani River Basin, Sri Lanka

River floods in Sri Lanka are mainly associated with extreme rainfall events. The Kelani and Kalu rivers are recorded the highest flood frequencies and the accompanying flood damages among the river basins in wet zone (UNDP, 2011). Therefore, the specific objective of the study is to estimate the temporal probability of occurrence of flood events in downstream of Kelani river basin. Secondary data were used for the study. Daily discharges data were obtained from Hanwella gauging station for the period of 1990 to 2019 from the Department of Irrigation, Sri Lanka. Trend analysis, normal distribution and flood frequency analysis have been used. The results of the study revealed that there was a bi-modal pattern of discharges that occurred in June and October. The results also indicated that ten return periods were covered the total period of 30 years, and there was a 97 per cent probability of flood occurrence almost annually and 64 per cent probability of occurring once every two years. This study, therefore, was recommended to design flood control structures for mitigating flood risk; and to determine the economic value of flood control projects and the effect of encroachments on flood plain. Keywords: floods, frequency, downstream, return period, probability

Review on Lightweight Mobile Flood Wall Barrier: Way Forward for Malaysia

Flooding is a persisting challenge in Malaysia. Combating flood risk has become a main priority for sustainable development in this country. The application of sophisticated engineering in hard structure approaches and flood control systems are often incongruous to the public. Therefore, there is a need to integrate the soft engineering approaches and the best practises of flood management to mitigate flood risk. There is also a need to integrate the concept of sustainable development into its planning policies towards flood hazard reduction. Mobile flood protection measures are useful as an alternative solution in flood protection and mitigation purposes. Mobile protective systems can be used for temporarily increasing the height of permanent flood protection structures during extreme events and can be utilised as emergency measure against flooding in unprotected low-lying areas. As the available mobile systems differ in the type of material, method of installation and available protection height, a description of their features, and potential application were examined including their respective opportunities and drawbacks. This article presents a review on different types of lightweight mobile flood wall barrier (MFWB) that were implemented to cope with floods in Malaysia with examples of application in other countries such as United Kingdom, Slovakia, and Netherlands. The MFWB products are reviewed and compared to each other according to the types, characteristics, mechanisms, drawbacks and how these measures are integrated into spatial planning. Based on the findings, several suggestions are given on how to improve the flood risk management in flood-prone areas and way forward for Malaysia.

OPTIMIZATION OF RETENTION POND IN FLOOD CONTROL EFFORTS IN PEKANBARU (URBAN FLOOD SYSTEM IMPROVEMENT PROJECT)

This research aims to optimize the function of retention ponds as part of the urban flood control improvement project in Pekanbaru. Evaluation was conducted on the capacity and efficiency of retention ponds, with a focus on spatial distribution, sustainability, and environmental impact. The findings of this study provide a foundation for formulating concrete and data-driven improvement recommendations. The spatial distribution of retention ponds is crucial in understanding their effectiveness in mitigating flood risks. Evaluation of the actual capacity of retention ponds provides an overview of their ability to accommodate excess rainwater, while efficiency identifies factors for enhancement and improvement. Improvement recommendations include increasing capacity, implementing advanced technology, and developing data-driven solutions. Involving stakeholders, including local government, research institutions, and the community, is a strategic step to ensure successful implementation. The application of sensors and geographic information systems (GIS) can enhance the effectiveness of retention pond operational management. Sustainability of solutions is realized through routine maintenance, performance monitoring, and multi-stakeholder collaboration. This research significantly contributes to urban flood management in Pekanbaru by providing concrete, data-driven recommendations for the retention pond system.

INTEGRATION OF ENGINEERING AND POLITICS IN WATER MANAGEMENT: A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO ENHANCING PUBLIC

This article explores the evolving concept of water governance across various nations, serving as a reference for effective and sustainable water management. Aligned with Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) No. 6, which focuses on Clean Water and Sanitation, Indonesia faces unique challenges due to its dual climate patterns of rainy and dry seasons. These climatic variations necessitate sound water resource management to address water shortages during droughts, prevent drought-related disasters and mitigate flood risks during the rainy season. Utilizing a literature review methodology, this research aims to comprehend the development of knowledge in the water governance concept, incorporating both technical and political dimensions in policy formulation. The findings underscore the significance of collaboration, cooperation, and participation among the government, community, and private sector in implementing effective water governance. Embracing the governance paradigm, the key takeaway is the need for collective efforts to establish robust water resource management, thereby ensuring the success of the clean water and sanitation program nationwide by 2030. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that not all variants of water governance models can be universally applied, considering the diverse institutional contexts and political cultures across different regions in Indonesia. Despite these challenges, this research underscores the importance of a holistic approach that integrates both technical and political aspects in water management policies, providing a foundation for achieving sustainable water access and sanitation goals.

Integrated Hydrological Modeling for Watershed Analysis, Flood Prediction, and Mitigation Using Meteorological and Morphometric Data, SCS-CN, HEC-HMS/RAS, and QGIS

Flooding is a natural disaster with extensive impacts. Desert regions face altered flooding patterns owing to climate change, water scarcity, regulations, and rising water demands. This study assessed and predicted flash flood hazards by calculating discharge volume, peak flow, flood depth, and velocity using the Hydrologic Engineering Centre-River Analysis System and Hydrologic Modelling System (HEC-HMS and HEC-RAS) software. We employed meteorological and morphological data analyses, incorporating the soil conservation service (SCS) curve number method for precipitation losses and the SCS-Hydrograph for runoff transformation. The model was applied to two drainage basins (An-Nawayah and Al-Rashrash) in southeastern Cairo, Egypt, which recently encountered several destructive floods. The applied model revealed that 25-, 50-, and 100-year storms produced runoff volumes of 2461.8 × 103, 4299.6 × 103, and 5204.5 × 103 m3 for An-Nawayah and 6212 × 103, 8129.4 × 103, and 10,330.6 × 103 m3 for Al-Rashrash, respectively. Flood risk levels, categorised as high (35.6%), extreme (21.9%), and medium (21.12%) were assessed in low- and very-low-hazard areas. The study highlighted that the areas closer to the Nile River mouth faced greater flood impacts from torrential rain. Our findings demonstrate the effectiveness of these methods in assessing and predicting flood risk. As a mitigation measure, this study recommends the construction of five 10 m high dams to create storage lakes. This integrated approach can be applied to flood risk assessment and mitigation in comparable regions.

Flood Risk Identification of Zhengzhou Metropolitan Area Based on Invest Model

Rainstorm and urban flood are always one of the most serious natural disasters in China due to the change of ecological environment, terrain conditions and climate change. Rainstorm and flood disasters seriously threaten the security and development of regional economy and society. Therefore, how to identify the high-risk areas of flood disasters is an important issue to be solved in the prevention of flood disasters. Taking Zhengzhou metropolitan area as the research object, based on the Urban Flood Risk Mitigation module of InVEST model, the vulnerability of flood disaster, the supply capacity of flood regulation service and the supply-demand ratio of ecosystem service in the study area are obtained through analysis, and the areas vulnerable to flood disaster in the study area are identified. The results show that : (1) The flood regulation service supply capacity is mainly manifested in the spatial distribution pattern of high in the west and low in the east. The northern Jiaozuo, northern Xinyang, western Zhengzhou and western Xuchang have higher supply service levels. (2) Affected by factors such as population density, economic development level and land use development degree, there are also obvious spatial differences in the spatial distribution of flood regulation service demand. The high demand area of flood regulation service is concentrated in the central urban area. (3) In areas with low population density and high vegetation coverage, the high supply and low demand of flood regulation services lead to a higher service supply-demand ratio. In the central urban area of the city, due to the large proportion of construction land and dense population, the supply and demand of services is relatively low.

Building green infrastructure for mitigating urban flood risk in Beijing, China

Due to climate change and accelerated urbanization, urban flooding has an increasing impact on the sustainable development of metropolitan areas. Since the 1990s, green infrastructure has developed as an alternative and sustainable approach to the mitigation of flood disaster in urban areas. To improve the resilience of urban ecological flood control and build a green infrastructure network, we provide quantitative measures of flood risk assessment to generate a grid-scale (1 ×1 km) flood risk assessment results and analyze its spatiotemporal heterogeneity. Then, we propose a GIS-based multi-criteria assessment method to determine the priority areas of green infrastructure according to four criteria, generating a distribution map of green infrastructure priorities in Beijing at the township scale. From the perspective of urban flood risk mitigation, the research proposes a new method to determine the priority areas of green infrastructure, thus establishing suggestions for future green infrastructure construction in Beijing.

Spatial congruency or discrepancy? Exploring the spatiotemporal dynamics of built-up expansion patterns and flood risk

Most coastal cities have been experiencing unprecedented urbanization-induced flood risk, climatic events, and haphazard anthropogenic activities, jeopardizing residents' lives and building environments. Despite mounting flood-related studies, analyzing the correlation between the spatiotemporal dynamics of Built-up Expansion patterns (BE) and flood risk remains unknown and holds divergent perspectives. In this context, the coastal city of Alexandria, Egypt, characterized by multiple urban patterns and experiencing heavy rainfall annually, was selected as a testbed. Our method defined the spatiotemporal rates of BE from 1995 to 2023, quantified flood risk spatially, and finally investigated the correlation between BE and flood risk through spatial and statistical analysis. Our results show the built-up area occupied 30.32 % of the total city area till 2023, and the infilling pattern dominated the BE growth by 45.21 % of the total built-up area, followed by leapfrogging and edge expansion by 33.25 % and 21.55 %, respectively. The unplanned-infilling pattern is predominantly highly correlated with the flood-vulnerable peaks (correlation coefficient (rk) = 0.975, p-value < 0.05) and lowers dramatically towards planned-infilling regions with flood protections. Meanwhile, a spatial mismatch exists between high-risk peaks and leapfrogging and edge expansion (rk = 0.118 and 0.662, respectively, with a p-value < 0.01), indicating that controlling the built-up amount is inadequate for mitigating flood risk. Porosity-based urban configuration and spatial distribution of built-up patches in harmony with nature-based solutions are recommended for shaping flood-resilient and effective urban planning.

Computer vision based first floor elevation estimation from mobile LiDAR data

First Floor Elevation (FFE) of a house is crucial information for flood management and for accurately assessing the flood exposure risk of a property. However, the lack of reliable FFE data on a large geographic scale significantly limits efforts to mitigate flood risk, such as decision on elevating a property. The traditional method of collecting elevation data of a house relies on time-consuming and labor-intensive on-site inspections conducted by licensed surveyors or engineers. In this paper, we propose an automated and scalable method for extracting FFE from mobile LiDAR point cloud data. The fine-tuned yolov5 model is employed to detect doors, windows, and garage doors on the intensity-based projection of the point cloud, achieving an mAP@0.5:0.95 of 0.689. Subsequently, FFE is estimated using detected objects. We evaluated the Median Absolute Error (MAE) metric for the estimated FFE in Manville, Ventnor, and Longport, which resulted in values of 0.2 ft, 0.27 ft, and 0.24 ft, respectively. The availability of FFE data has the potential to provide valuable guidance for setting flood insurance premiums and facilitating benefit-cost analyses of buyout programs targeting residential buildings with a high flood risk.

Suitability of the height above nearest drainage (HAND) model for flood inundation mapping in data-scarce regions: a comparative analysis with hydrodynamic models

Unprecedented floods from extreme rainfall events worldwide emphasize the need for flood inundation mapping for floodplain management and risk reduction. Access to flood inundation maps and risk evaluation tools remains challenging in most parts of the world, particularly in rural regions, leading to decreased flood resilience. The use of hydraulic and hydrodynamic models in rural areas has been hindered by excessive data and computational requirements. In this study, we mapped the flood inundation in Huron Creek watershed, Michigan, USA for an extreme rainfall event (1000-year return period) that occurred in 2018 (Father’s Day Flood) using the Height Above Nearest Drainage (HAND) model and a synthetic rating curve developed from LIDAR DEM. We compared the flood inundation extent and depth modeled by the HAND with flood inundation characteristics predicted by two hydrodynamic models, viz., HEC-RAS 2D and SMS-SRH 2D. The flood discharge of the event was simulated using the HEC-HMS hydrologic model. Results suggest that, in different channel segments, the HAND model produces different degrees of concurrence in both flood inundation extent and depth when compared to the hydrodynamic models. The differences in flood inundation characteristics produced by the HAND model are primarily due to the uncertainties associated with optimal parameter estimation of the synthetic rating curve. Analyzing the differences between the HAND and hydrodynamic models also highlights the significance of terrain characteristics in model predictions. Based on the comparable predictive capability of the HAND model to map flood inundation areas during extreme rainfall events, we demonstrate the suitability of the HAND-based approach for mitigating flood risk in data-scarce, rural regions.

Increasing urban flood resilience through public participation: A case study of Tuti Island in Khartoum, Sudan

AbstractOver the past 30 years, Sudan has experienced several severe floods which have caused loss of life and significant damage to property. The frequency and intensity of floods in Sudan are predicted to increase as a result of climate change. The main objective of this research was to assist policymakers in establishing a mechanism for public participation in Sudan to enable communities to be engaged in improving flood risk management. This paper focuses on Tuti Island, which is located near the confluence of the Blue and White Niles in Khartoum which is severely affected by flooding. The research was based on surveys and interviews with both officials and the public to examine the degree of public participation in mitigating flood risks. The research concluded that Sudan has no policy or official way of engaging the public in disaster risk reduction; however, the traditional method of social mobilization called Nafeer (building together) can play a significant role in increasing communities' flood resilience. Establishing a clear framework for public participation, such as Nafeer, for the various stages of the flood management cycle that coordinates with decision‐makers can help increase the resilience of urban areas in low‐income countries like Sudan.

Developing ecological piety in pesantren: the Kyai’s cognition and the practice of living fiqh al-bī’ah in Banten

This study investigates the formation of ecological devotion within pesantren, led by kyai in the application of fiqh al-bī’ah. It delineates the developmental stages into three components aligned with Berger and Luckmann’s social construction theory: externalisation, objectification, and internalisation. Using qualitative methods and field studies, data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with three religious leaders from two eco-pesantren in Banten Province. Externalization is exemplified by the kyai’s teachings on humanity as caliphs, advocating against harming the Earth, emphasizing cleanliness as integral to faith, and prioritising thahhārah in fiqh. Objectification is seen in the prohibition of deforestation and embedded environmental preservation duties within the schools’ hidden curriculum. Internalisation reflects practical implementation aligned with established objectives, observed through growing pro-environmental consciousness, attitudes, and behaviours among school members, evolving progressively. This construction of ecological devotion resulted in tangible contributions to groundwater conservation and flood risk mitigation by the two schools. The findings highlight Islamic boarding schools’ potential to elevate environmental standards via fiqh al-bī’ah-rooted ecological wisdom. Collaborative efforts involving stakeholders, such as financial support and training programmes, are vital to enhancing the environmental management capacity, particularly in establishing impactful water management systems within these institutions.

A participatory systems dynamic modelling approach to understanding flood systems in a coastal community in Cameroon

In the face of increasing flood risks and the need for effective management both at national and local levels, this study highlights a participatory approach that transcends conventional stakeholder consultation but delves into drawing insights through conceptual models that unveil the potential of the Participatory System Dynamic Modelling approach to mitigate flood risks, even at the grassroots level effectively. Through active stakeholder engagement, the study focuses on identifying and analysing the intricate interdependencies and feedback loops within the Limbe flood risk management system that are crucial for recommending comprehensive and actionable flood risk mitigation strategies for Limbe's cross-sectoral dynamics. By including flood experts and community stakeholders in the conceptual model construction, the study utilises an evaluative framework that accounts for system processes and outcomes, ensuring a holistic understanding of the flood risk system, considering scientific knowledge and real-life experiences. The findings underscore the value of participatory modelling techniques in facilitating the identification and prioritisation of intervention options by diverse stakeholders, thereby promoting active engagement in local flood risk management, a vital step in addressing the escalating challenges posed by climate change and natural disasters.

Mitigation of Flood Risk with Bamboo Planting Design in Barabai River Floodplain in South Kalimantan, Indonesia

Mitigation of Flood Risk with Bamboo Planting Design in Barabai River Floodplain in South Kalimantan, Indonesia