Missionary Society Research Articles

Obituary for Professor Chengetai Zvobgo

Professor Chengetai Zvobgo will be remembered as a conscientious and hardworking scholar of history, who devoted himself to scrupulous research in archives to understand the social development of Africans in Zimbabwe in response to the western impact. He used the Christianmissionary penetration of Zimbabwe at the beginning of the 20th Century, starting with the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, under the tutelage of the redoubtable Professor George Shepperson of Edinburgh University, as the launch pad of his lifetime intellectual pursuit. That journeysoon broadened to cover all the missionary organisations that laboured in Zimbabwe and also embraced all their three ministries of teaching,healing as well as evangelisation.

Indoda Ebisithanda (“The Man who Loved Us”): The Reverend James Laing among the amaXhosa

While producing a guide to the diaries and journals in the Cory Library many years ago, I found two bound volumes of a largely unfathomable journal written by an early missionary of the Glasgow Missionary Society, James Laing. These volumes were housed as part of the extensive and valued Lovedale Collection. They were unnumbered but the entry dates ranged from 1845 to 1872.

Dissolving Views: The Tsimshian Community of Metlakatla

England’s Church Missionary Society sent missionary William Duncan to Victoria, BC in 1856. His task was to convert the native Tsimshian who lived in the Fort Simpson area to Christianity. Grouped together with other historical accounts of the conversion of indigenous peoples, the story of Metlakatla is often characterized as a story of loss. However, this article posits a different reading of this history, one based on the idea that the material practices and beliefs of the peoples of Metlakatla suggest an ongoing engagement with this past, making for a living, transcendent historical trajectory. In examining the ways that the Metlakatlans engaged with and repurposed material religion in the Tsimshian and Anglican contexts, I demonstrate the significance of this alternate form of history. A material religion reading of a Chilkat dancing blanket, or gwishalaayt, helps illuminate the sometimes uncomfortable overlap between indigenous and colonizing perspectives, raising further questions about the boundary-lines and completeness of acts of conversion.

Karubiu wa Munyi and the making of modern Kirinyaga, Kenya

The article sets out to explore the lessons that can be drawn from the selfless and integrity-driven leadership offered by some pioneer post-independent Kenyan leaders such as Karubiu wa Munyi. With more financial scandals increasing in the public domains, as in the case where over 15 mega corruption scandals remained unaccounted for, by 2018, the need to draw some lessons from the likes of wa Munyi becomes an important matter worth consideration in the 21st century. As we seek to demolish both colonial mentality and neo-colonialism in the 21st century, there is a need to reconstruct the memories of some of our key actors in our African societies, as we seek to rebuild our respective contexts. Having lived under deadly and complicated theo-historical times, but eventually overcame hunger and famine, war, colonial bombs and general poverty, the article hypothesises, he stands out on a pedestal and remains a critical reflective case for masses of people who are walking through the valleys and shadows of death in Africa and beyond. In its methodology, the article develops mainly from the researchers’ interviews with wa Munyi who is eventually chronicled, as it seeks to ascertain whether there are lessons to draw from his ‘philanthropic’ and integrity-driven leadership. Was the virtue-driven leadership of Karubiu wa Munyi a by-product of Africa’s Ubuntu [caring for the other] cultural heritage and the evangelical Anglican Christianity that settled in his locality since 1912? And has the society lost its cultural morality and the virtue-leaning evangelical Christianity that was ushered in by the Church Mission Society at the beginning of the 20th century? In this article, Gitugi kia bururi [the critical cornerstone] – the casual description of wa Munyi – symbolises the ideal leaders who remain at peace with themselves and the general society even after retiring from active public duties; as their respective consciences are above board. Africa has to take lessons from such selfless leaders. The materials in this article are gathered through interviews with wa Munyi and other people who are connected to issues under consideration. A review of relevant literature has also been done. Contribution: The article adds to the growing knowledge by its originality; a phenomenon where a little-known civic leader (Karubiu wa Munyi) is used as a lens through which we can understand the modern day Africa. Has the continent that sought independence from the colonialists who came after the Berlin Conference of 15 November 1884 to 26 February 1885 recolonising itself through neo-colonialism and corrupt practices of unimaginable proportions? The article is relevant to the HTS Journal and the world of scholarship as it shows God’s works in history, as it confirms that a people who walk through the desolate valleys and shadows of death, and are starring at the total annihilation, do also have a future.

'To Capture Minds and Wills': Establishing Christian Radio Broadcasting in Cold War South Korea

HLKY was the first civilian-owned radio station in South Korea. It started broadcasting in 1954 and served as an important source of information for the South Korean population during the early decades of the new nation. Though it was a Christian station, HLKY’s programming was not limited to religious topics; it devoted airtime to world news, dramas, music, and general educational programing. HLKY occupies an important place in the history of radio broadcasting in South Korea, but its origins and planning are still poorly understood. Drawing on heretofore largely unexamined archival sources, this article details the establishment of HLKY. Particular attention is paid to the missionaries who, under the aegis of the Foreign Missionary Conference of North America (FMCNA), led the planning and early administration of the station. The founding of HLKY reflected both struggles among the major mission societies to maintain ecumenical cooperation in the face of theological fissures and a desire to cultivate a form of Christianity that could address, in a practical manner, the social and economic decay that were pervasive around the globe in the post-World War II period.

Skepi Dutch Creole

Abstract In this article we present newly found lexical and grammatical data pertaining to Skepi, the Dutch-lexified creole which is now extinct but was once widespread in the Essequibo area of what is today the Republic of Guyana. The source of this new material are the linguistic notes contained in the diary of Reverend Thomas B. Youd, a missionary in service of the Church Missionary Society, who was active in the area from 1833 to 1842.

존 프라이어(John Fryer) 연구: “그는 선교사인가 과학 전파자인가?”

John Fryer (1839-1928, Chinese name 傅兰雅) came to China as a layman missionary and devoted himself to educational missionary work while going through the Hong Kong St. Paul's School, the School of Combined Learning and the Shanghai Anglo-Chinese School. However, as relations with the Church Missionary Society went sour, he become devoted to the spread of science, unlike the path of a general missionary. He mainly tried to modernize China through the spread of Western scientific civilization, including the Kiangnan Arsenal and The Chinese Scientific and Industrial Magazine, Gezhi Senior High School of Shanghai and the publication of science textbooks through the The School and Textbook Series Committee. But he wondered what role Christianity, as a religion, should play in Chinese society through the proper combination of religion and science, as well as the spread of science. Although it maintained a thorough separation of religion and science at the site of the dissemination of scientific knowledge, religion was intended to serve as a source of capacity to save China from crisis in the spiritual and moral sphere. Thus, Fryer sought his own unique path and always expected the impact of Christianity on the course of the transformation of Chinese society through a balance between religion and science. He was a missionary and also a propagandist of science.

“Grandfather in the Bones”

Abstract Evangelical Anglicans of the Church Missionary Society constructed a triumphal narrative on the growth of the Ugandan Church circa 1900–1920. This narrative developed from racial theory, the Hamitic hypothesis, and colonial conquest in its admiration of Ugandans. When faced with closing the mission due to its success, the missionaries shifted to scientific racist language to describe Ugandans and protect the mission. Most scholarship on missionaries argues that they eschewed scientific racism due to their commitment to spiritual equality. This episode reveals the complex ways the missionaries wove together racial and theological ideas to justify missions and the particularity of Uganda.

The Ideology of the German Neukirchen Mission and Its Implication on Education in Tana River County, Kenya 1887-1986

This paper examines the ideology of the German Neukirchen Mission and its implication on education in Tana River County, Kenya 1887 to 1986. Western education and Christianity in Africa were introduced by Christian missionaries from Europe as early as the 16th century but took root in around the mid-nineteenth century. In Tana River, several missionary organizations ventured in the area notably the Methodist Missionary Society (MMS), the German Neukirchen Mission (GNM), the Holy Ghost Fathers (HGF) and the Swedish Mission. They all gave up in the area due to a multiplicity of hardships save for the GNM which hang on and continued with evangelization and education. Consequently, there is need to look at the ideology of the GNM that influenced its resolve to persist in an area shunned by its contemporaries. An understanding of GNM’s ideology would come in handy in helping to improve education standards in the area bearing in mind that the same problems that bedeviled the region have to a large extent remained to date The study had three objectives which were: to identify the educational institutions opened by the GNM in Tana River County 1887-1986; to establish the hardships experienced by the GNM in Tana River County in the period 1887-1986 and to examine the ideology which influenced GNM’s activities in Tana River County in the period 1887-1986. The time frame was 1887 to 1986. This period covers the time the GNM arrived in Tana River to the year the first secondary school was established at Ngao i.e 1986. Ngao served as GNM’s mission base or station since the arrival of the missionaries in the region. The study was historical in nature and utilized a historical research design. Sources of data were both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources were mainly drawn from the Kenya National Archives (KNA) and schools and churches in Tana River. Document analysis was also utilized as a data collection method. The research instruments were interview schedules and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Respondents to these research instruments were retired educationists, civil servants and politicians, church leaders and village elders selected through purposive and snowball sampling techniques; all totaling 33. Collected data was analyzed through qualitative and quantitative methods while documents were analyzed through external and internal criticism. The study found out that the GNM established 31 primary schools 28 of which are still operational. The GNM missionaries experienced several challenges among them deportation during the two World Wars, frequent Somali attacks, floods, poor transport network, malaria infections and inadequate finances. The ideology was examined under five perspectives namely The Great Commission, Faith Mission, Reformed Theology, Social Darwinism and Socio-Political and Economic view point. The study recommends improvement of road and school infrastructure, investing more on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions, opening of a secondary school wing in every primary school, delocalization of teachers and establishment of an institution of higher learning in the area.

Is the Christian evangel ‘a evangel of labor’? ‘Education to labor’ and ‘education by labor’ of the natives in German East Africa by German missionaries in 1885-1914

식민지에서 ‘원주민의 노동으로의 교육’과 관련하여 식민주의자들과 일정 부분 목표를 공유했던 기독교 선교사의 활동을 중심으로 이들이 원주민에게 전달하고자 했던 ‘기독교의 복음’이 ‘노동의 복음’이었는지, 만약 그렇다면 어떤 의미에서 그렇다고 할 수 있는 지를 독일령 동아프리카에서 활동했던 독일 선교사들을 중심으로 검토해 보고자 했다. ‘원주민의 노동으로의 교육’과 관련해서 신속한 시간 안에 경제적인 이익을 내고자 했던 식민주의자들과 시간이 걸리더라도 원주민의 내면 변화를 통한 교육을 추구했던 선교사들은 상이한 방법을 옹호했다. 식민주의자들이 식민정부의 권위에 기대어 노동의 의무와 같은 ‘직접적인’ 강제노동을 주장했던 데 대해서, 선교사들은 대체로 ‘직접적인’ 강제노동에 반대하고 세금과 같은 ‘간접적인’ 강제노동을 옹호했다. 하지만 선교사들 중 소수는 식민주의자와 같은 목소리를 내는 경우도 없지 않았다. 선교사들이 원주민의 내면 변화를 통한 노동교육에 사용한 방법은 가톨릭과 개신교 모두 ‘기도하고 일하라(ora et labora)’였다. 선교사들 자신들이 ‘기도와 노동’하는 삶을 본보기로 보였고, 선교학교는 지적 교육과 노동교육을 병행함으로써 ‘노동학교’ 역할을 했다. 이때 식민정책 관련자들은 특히 가톨릭 선교회의 활동을 ‘labora et ora’로 이해하면서 칭찬했으며, 개신교 선교회의 활동 ‘ora et labora’를 비난하는 근거로 사용하기도 했었다. 하지만 실제로는 양 교파 모두 선교활동에서 ‘labora et ora’를 실천했던 것으로 평가된다. 독일 가톨릭과 개신교 선교사들이 선교활동에서 원주민의 ‘노동으로의 교육’을 통해서 추구한 목표는 식민주의자와 차이가 있었다. 이들의 최종 목표는 원주민의 ‘문명화’라기보다는 ‘기독교화’였다. 이때 원주민의 경제적 자립이 중요했는데, 이것은 원주민이 선교회와 본국 독일제국을 위해 경제적 자립을 해야 하기도 했지만, 대부분의 선교사들은 아프리카 원주민 자신들을 위해서 경제적 자립을 주장했다. 원주민의 경제적 자립 없이는 아프리카에서 장기적인 기독교 선교의 성공을 보장할 수 없다고 생각했기 때문이었다. 독일령 동아프리카에서 활동했던 독일 가톨릭과 개신교 선교회가 ‘원주민의 노동으로의 교육’을 통해서 도달하고자 한 궁극적인 목표가 유사했던데 대해서, 그 과정에 대해서는 조금 달랐다. 가톨릭 선교회가 노동으로의 교육을 아프리카인을 보다 높은 문화 수준으로 교육시키는 수단으로 간주한데 대해서, 개신교 선교회는 도덕을 향상시키는 이교도 선교의 결과가 노동으로의 교육이라고 보았던 것이다. 따라서 독일령 동아프리카에서 활동한 독일 양 교파 선교사들이 전하고자한 ‘기독교의 복음’은, 식민주의자가 선교회에 요구한 그들의 ‘노동의 복음’과는 일정 부분 달랐지만, 역시 ‘노동의 복음’이었다고 할 수 있겠다. 선교사들의 ‘노동의 복음’의 핵심은 기독교의 ‘노동윤리’에서 나온 것으로서, 원주민의 기독교로의 개종과 기독교인으로서의 자립경제를 목표로 제시했다. 그들의 ‘노동의 복음’은 가톨릭 선교회의 경우에는 ‘모든 사람의 의무’와, 개신교 선교회의 경우에는 온 인류의 ‘직업’ 혹은 ‘소명’과 연결되어 설명되었다.This study wants to investigate that it was ‘a evangel of labor’ for German Catholic and Protestant missionaries to preach to the natives of Africa while they evangelized them in German East Africa from 1885 to 1914. If so, in what sense can it be said so? When it comes to educating the natives of East Africa to labor, the colonialists and the missionaries used different methods. While the former advocated a direct forced labor like a compulsory labor duty, the latter an indirect like charging taxes on the Africans. But there were a few missionaries who spoke with one voice on this subject with the colonialists. In general, the German Catholic and Protestant missionaries used ‘pray and labor (ora et labora)’ to educate them to labor in their missionary stations. But their education strategies of both were estimated as ‘labor and pray (labora et ora)’ by historians. As far as the goals of educating the African natives to labor concerned, they tried to achieve different ends. The colonialists aimed at civilizing the Africans in order to obtain economic profit from them. For the German missionaries was their Christianization most important. On the whole they pursued their economic independence for their own missionary societies and their homeland, German Empire. But first of all for the natives in East Africa themselves. Because they thought that it could not promise a success of a longtime mission without their economic self-supporting. The gospel which the German Catholic and Protestant missionaries preached to the natives of German East Africa was a gospel of labor also. But it was different from that of the colonialists. The essence of their gospel of labor came from the Christian labor ethics and aimed at the economic independence of the natives as Christians.

The Sound of Silence: The 1929-30 Gikuyu 'Female Circumcision Controversy' and the Discursive Suppression of African Women's Voices

In 1929-30, British missionaries active in central Kenya sought the help of the British colonial government in banning and eventually eradicating the Gikuyu tradition of female circumcision. This was met by an uproar amongst the Gikuyu population, many of whom protested in the form of the Muthirigu dance song, giving rise to what is known as the ‘female circumcision controversy.’ Contemporary sources demonstrate the numerous contributions to the debate on the issue, including from missionary societies, colonial officials, British women, and Kenyan men, who all incorporated the controversy into their various agendas, be it concern for women’s health on the missionary’s part; anxiety of colonial officials over the impact of circumcision on Kenya’s long-term population growth; worry for their ‘sisters’ by British women Members of Parliament; or concern about Western infringement on Gikuyu traditions on the part of Kenyan men. What is most noticeable is the absence of Kenyan women’s voices in the sources on the matter, in spite of the fact that this was an issue about their own bodies. This article examines the different ways in which Kenyan women’s voices were silenced on the issue, and attempt to retrieve their voices from the sources available. In doing so, the article seeks to demonstrate the general tendency to silence African women in history and in historical epistemology.

The Relevance of Transnational Networking in the Global Ministry of Fredrik Franson

Fredrik Franson lived from 1852 to 1908, was born in Sweden, emigrated to the USA and operated from there as international evangelist, founder of churches, church federations and mission societies, visiting more than fifty countries. The importance of Franson for mission history stems from the fact that in the span of only 22 years thirteen faith missions, numerous churches and six free church federations emerged as a result of his ministry. His eschatology led to an urgency for Christian mission. Franson also developed new methods of missionary work: follow up meetings in Europe and evangelisation courses across social classes as an instrument of recruitment of new missionaries for Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. Franson’s life and work are presented here in the light of the prevailing trans­national connec­tions in politics, economy, international traffic and religion. Modern industrialization was gathering momentum, railways and navigation by sea were expanding, and Christian networks such as the Evangelical Alliance , the Holiness Movement and the Sunday School Union and the faith missions experienced considerable growth in which Franson participated. The key question of this article is: what effect did the enhancing factors of transnational infrastructure and Christian networking have on the ministry of Franson? In historical research about faith missions, transnationalism has hardly been considered as an important aspect of their expansion. Yet the question is justified, in which way the political, economic and social development of Europe after 1871, as a time of peace, enhanced Christian mission. In which sense is there a vital connection between eased travel, facilitated by the growing worldwide network of railway lines and modern steamship routes, accelerated forms of community

Mission, Empire, and the Ultimate Good: Colonel John Munro, Benjamin Bailey, and the Church Missionary Society “Mission of Help” to Travancore (1816–18)

Abstract The Church Missionary Society “Mission of Help” to the Syrian Church of Travancore in the nineteenth century provides much instructive food for thought concerning debates that continue in mission up to the present day. In particular, the episode shows that the links between mission and empire cannot be reduced to seeing mission as a mere handmaiden to imperial concerns, although empire certainly provided a context to missionary endeavor throughout the imperial period. In this specific instance it was the forceful personality of Colonel John Munro who ensured that the Mission of Help became more intertwined with empire than might otherwise have been the case. Another effect of this imperial context for the Mission of Help was that the nature and scope of mission inevitably ended up being broadened to include aspects of societal transformation. It is shown that Benjamin Bailey was not primarily motivated by such concerns, yet was not unconcerned about them. Bailey’s thinking through of these tensions perhaps provide a way to think today about the links between the “Great Commission,” the “Great Commandment,” and cultural transformation.

‘Houses of Mercy’: The Healthcare Initiatives of the Woman's Home Missionary Society in Alaska

ABSTRACT The Woman's Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church was active in evangelism in Alaska between the early 1880s and late 1930s. A central concern for the Society was the physical health of Alaska Natives. The Society missionaries argued that Native health suffered from both poor home life and a biological predisposition to illness. In order to remedy the illnesses, especially tuberculosis, Society missionaries sought to educate Native women in ‘proper’ mothering or attempted to remove children from Native communities.

Response to AAR Articles

Response to AAR Articles

Språk og etnisitet: NMS misjonen blant Gumuz i Etiopia 1970-2020

This paper examines the work of the Norwegian Mission Society amongst the Gumuz people in Ethiopia from the perspective of linguistic and cultural sensitivity. The Norwegian missionaries were called to Ethiopia in 1970 by the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus (EECMY), to work with the indigenous Gumuz population in Western Ethiopian lowlands. Despite a chal-lenging relationship to a church dominated by the majority population of the area, the Oromo, and despite changing regimes and governmental restrictions on language and evangelism work, the results of the Gumuz mission are remarkable, achieved through the presence of strong and committed missionaries. However, the NMS never developed a conclusive strategy for this work which takes the importance of linguistic and cultural factors into consideration. For a long time, no efforts for scripture translation were made and no strategies for the proclamation of the gospel in mother tongue were formulated. The ethnically based power relations in the church were never challenged. In recent times NMS has strengthened its focus, but the practical implementation is threatened due to ecclesiastical and political circumstances in Ethiopia as well as little consistent priorities from the mission organisation.

ВІДОБРАЖЕННЯ МІСІОНЕРСЬКОЇ ДІЯЛЬНОСТІ ЩОДО ПРОТЕСТАНТСЬКОГО РУХУ В УКРАЇНІ У ЗВІТНІЙ ДОКУМЕНТАЦІЇ (1900-1917 рр.)

The research was conducted in order to highlight the sources of missionary activity on the Protestant movement in the Ukrainian lands and to establish the information potential of the analyzed documents. The methodological basis is based on the principle of historicism and objectivity. Research methods used: heuristic, method of analysis and synthesis, in particular, thematic and structural types of content analysis, methods of source analysis.The peculiarities of informative saturation of documents, as well as the nature of their informative orientation are determined. Problems of the history of the Protestant movement have been identified in reports, published articles of Orthodox missionaries. An objective assessment of the role of missionary societies in the religious, administrative and educational areas of their activities.According to the results of the research, the prospects of further scientific research of the history of Protestantism in the Ukrainian lands by introducing new sources into scientific circulation are outlined. In the course of the research, missionary periodicals were analyzed, and the influence of missionary journalism on the Protestant movement was revealed.

Maps Matter. The 10/40 Window and Missionary Geography

Abstract The 10/40 Window map is used by evangelical missionary societies to promote mission in Northern Africa, the Middle East and South East Asia. It has been widely popular among Christians worldwide, but has also suffered sustained criticism. The map itself, however, has received no scholarly attention. This article investigates the 10/40 Window map through the lens of the concept of territoriality. Using insights from the field of critical cartography, it argues that the map is pivotal in directing missionary zeal, but that in turn it has also reshaped missionary thinking. This is so because the actual map’s metageographical proportions, its cartographic language and the accompanying rhetoric communicate several novel key propositions about mission. The overall argument of this article is that maps are not innocuous illustrations, but indeed that maps matter a great deal and that missionary geography should be taken seriously.

Trading zones in a colony: Transcultural techniques at missionary stations in the Dutch East Indies, 1860 - 1940.

Global histories of technology tend to tell one-sided stories of transfer and exploitation, and they usually analyze the activities of large corporations, nation states or the military. By focusing on missionary societies in the colonial era, this article tells a different story. On the basis of primary sources from German missionaries in the Dutch East Indies, it shows how the application of various techniques at missionary stations was the outcome of transcultural interaction. Although missionaries brought with them tools and materials from home, they remained dependent on the knowledge and skills of local artisans, as well as the material and goods the locals provided. Missionaries’ wives tried to uphold a Western lifestyle but found themselves using local household technologies. The missionary station was a trading zone: Although the abilities of Europeans and Asians to communicate were socially and linguistically limited, they proved able to exchange information and skills in a successful manner. By revisiting the anthropological background to Galison’s trading zone, the authors re-appropriate this concept to improve our understanding of cross-cultural exchange in non-scientific settings.

Smallpox Vaccine and Resident Responses in Modern Shanghai: Focusing on Regional and Cultural Comparison.

In modern Shanghai, smallpox was one of the most threatening diseases with its mortality rate going up to 30 percent. In response to the disease, Dr. William Lockhart, a medical missionary of the London Missionary Society, introduced vaccination to the Chinese people in Shanghai. He built the first western style hospital in Shanghai, Renji Hospital, in 1843. At this time, native doctors also played a very important role. For example, Huang Chun-pu was in charge of the dispensary in the Chinese City in Shanghai, and he was the one who introduced vaccination under Dr. Lockhart's direction. In 1868, the Health Office of Shanghai Municipal Council began to implement a vaccination program. Around the turn of the 20th century, the Health Office of Shanghai Municipal Council managed several sub-district offices, hospitals, dispensaries, gaol, and even the traditional place like simiao for the free vaccinations. Urban residents benefited from a sanitary system, such as wide and free vaccination, compared to people who lived in rural areas. Moreover, Shanghai possessed the advantage of having the vaccine as a staple product of the Municipal Laboratory. The number of units of the vaccine issued from the Laboratory in sequence of years from 1898 to 1920 has been 115,351 on average. Unlike the International Settlement, where systematic inoculation was conducted under the leadership of the Municipal Council, the Chinese City was still reliant on charity organizations in the early 1900s. The foreign residence in the International Settlement had a strong influence from the foreign governments, and foreign doctors were well-aware of the need for the vaccination. However, the Chinese City was a Chinese enclave that was still under the traditional rule of the Qing Dynasty. In addition, the people of Shanghai had different perceptions of the smallpox vaccination, and this became an obstacle to the establishment of urban sanitation systems. Some Chinese people still relied on the traditional Chinese variolation and Chinese custom. For example, Chinese people still applied for inoculation in the spring and avoided summer and fall following traditional Chinese variolation, even though the best time to get vaccinated was in early winter before the spread of smallpox. In addition, foreigners were often more problematic than Chinese because they often overlooked the importance of vaccines and relied on drugs instead. The municipal authority, therefore, provided a wide range of free vaccinations for the poor and needy people regardless of their nationalities, and with such measures, sought to establish a stable urban sanitation system. This had been the key to the success of hygiene policies.