Minor Hockey Research Articles

Children’s Mental Health: Perspectives of Canadian Minor Hockey Coaches

Children’s Mental Health: Perspectives of Canadian Minor Hockey Coaches

“So, You’re Saying There’s a Chance …”

Competitive balance in sport is a desirable state for leagues to aspire to attain. Indeed, uncertainty of outcomes (Kringstad & Girginov, 2018) have been noted to be desirous. At the highest levels of professional sport, measures to promote competitive balance (e.g., amateur drafts, revenue sharing) are commonplace. It has been noted before (i.e., Wigfield & Chard, 2018) that competitive balance is similarly sought after in competitive youth sport settings. Here, the current study was completed to assess the competitive balance in various associations competing in Ontario’s boys’ representative minor hockey system. Results from the provincial championships since the 2005-06 season were analyzed for age groups ranging from U11 to U20 and across all competition levels (i.e., A, AA, AAA) by conducting a chi-square test of independence. Findings indicate that the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL) dominates Ontario rep hockey across all age groups and competition levels—with few exceptions. This article offers an innovative solution to roster construction that Ontario minor hockey associations can implement to combat the GTHL’s dominance.

The relationship between off-ice testing and on-ice performance in male youth Ice hockey players.

Ice hockey demands a unique blend of physical fitness and skill, necessitating a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing on-ice performance. The present study was designed to examine the relationship between off-ice and on-ice performance measures in male, youth, ice hockey players. Eleven minor hockey players (Age = 9.8 ± 1.1 years) participated in two testing days: (1) off-ice and (2) on-ice assessments. Off-ice assessments included maximal aerobic power, anaerobic fitness, muscular strength (handgrip and single leg squat), muscular endurance (curl-ups and push-ups), muscular power (standing long jump and vertical jump), and 30 m sprinting speed and acceleration. On-ice testing included a 15.2 m maximum speed test, a 6.1 m acceleration test with a continuation into a 47.9 m top speed test, an agility cornering S turn test, and a shot velocity test. Twenty-four out of 33 off-ice variables were significantly correlated with at least one of the 11 on-ice performance variables. From those 24, 10 were included as predictors for at least one of the on-ice performance variables. Each model was composed of either one or two predictors, where the most common predictors were 30 m Run - Split (6.1 m) Sprint time and 30 m Run - Total (30 m) Sprint Max speed (included in four out of 11 models each). The prediction formulas R2 and coefficient of variation ranged from 0.63% to 0.96% and 1.2% to 15.3%, respectively. Diverse off-ice measures of aerobic fitness, anaerobic power, muscular strength, power, and endurance, and sprinting speed, acceleration, and agility are predictive of on-ice performance. The insights gained from this study contribute to the refinement of assessment protocols, fostering a comprehensive approach to optimizing player performance and potential. Understanding the connection between objective off-ice testing and on-ice performance can support tailored training programs and player development in male youth ice hockey.

The ongoing struggle for legitimacy: the case of an unsanctioned community sport organization

PurposeThe purpose of this research is to explore how one unsanctioned community sport organization (CSO), AM Hockey, sought to acquire legitimacy in a highly institutionalized minor hockey marketplace at various points in its organizational life cycle.Design/methodology/approachThis study was guided by instrumental case study methodology. Twenty (20) AM Hockey stakeholders from a variety of roles (e.g. executives, program directors and coaches) were interviewed. Document analysis was also utilized to supplement the interviewees. Internal and public documents reflective of the CSO's creation and growth were obtained.FindingsFindings revealed that the CSO had to navigate distinct phases of evolution including the Building, Growth, Competition and Stabilization phases. Although the four life cycle phases identified in this study share similarities with the phases identified by Lester et al. (2003), findings indicated that institutional work mechanisms must be understood in their context as they can vary over the life cycle of an organization. Therefore, start-up sports organizations must approach the pursuit of legitimacy as a continual process rather than something acquired and defended through maintenance work.Originality/valueDeveloping legitimacy remains a central challenge for CSOs that seek to deliver alternative sport programming, yet it continues to be understudied. Ultimately, the long-term viability of an unsanctioned CSO in a federated sports system relies, in part, on its ability to continually determine the actions needed to achieve legitimacy within its environment.

Development of the Stressors among Parents in Youth Sport Survey (SPYSS)

ObjectivesParents of youth sport athletes report a variety of stressors associated with their child’s participation in youth sport settings. However, research examining associations between parents’ stressors and relevant outcomes is limited due to the lack of a comprehensive and validated measure of parents’ stressors in youth sport. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to develop and provide preliminary validation of the Stressors among Parents in Youth Sport Survey (SPYSS). MethodIn Study 1 we developed an initial version of the survey and tested the factor structure of the scale using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses with a sample of 1187 Canadian parents of minor hockey athletes. In Study 2, we administered the SPYSS to an independent sample of 783 parents with children participating in multiple sports, who also completed measures of parent stress and well-being, as well as parent-athlete outcomes, to establish convergent and divergent validity evidence and test associations with relevant outcomes for youth sport parents. ResultsThe results from Study 1 supported the development of a 42-item survey of parental stressors in youth sport. Results from Study 2 provided further evidence for the factor structure and validity evidence of a measure assessing parental stressors in youth sport. ConclusionsThe SPYSS assesses the frequency and intensity of a variety of stressors relevant for parents of youth sport athletes. The measure may be a useful tool for researchers, sport organizations, and practitioners to assess, monitor, and target the stressors experienced by parents in youth sport settings.

Exploring the use of individualized consideration by minor hockey coaches

Transformational leadership has been presented as a tool for coaches to foster positive youth development. One component of this concept is individualized consideration (IC), where leaders show care through supporting their followers’ individual needs. Examining the unique context of minor hockey will provide a more nuanced and complex description of IC. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to demonstrate how minor hockey coaches consider individual differences and tailor their practice to athletes’ needs. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted with 10 male minor hockey coaches whose teams consisted of 9- to 13-year-old, predominantly male, athletes. Findings show these coaches demonstrated the use of IC through three steps (a) gathering information about their athletes (e.g. engaging in interactions), (b) assessing individual needs (e.g. developmental) and (c) acting to support IC (e.g. adjusting coaching practices). Findings suggest (a) IC can be implemented to support basic and more complex needs of athletes, (b) IC can be implemented with teams of athletes and (c) the context of minor hockey is constraining the implementation of IC.

Rage at the Rink

This article examines the problem of parental aggression in minor hockey in the Canadian province of Quebec. Findings of the study are based on 30 semi-structured, qualitative interviews with minor hockey stakeholders in Quebec, including parents, coaches, referees and league executives. Interviews were conducted in both French and English. All 30 study participants observed parental violence and harassment while watching, coaching, and/or refereeing minor hockey and shared their perspectives on why parental aggression occurs in Quebec minor hockey. Drawing on Spaaij’s (2014) social-ecological model, we introduce a social-ecological model specific to the Canadian minor hockey context, which includes structural, social environmental, situational, interpersonal and individual. Moving from the structural to the individual, these factors include 1) levels of racism, xenophobia, and identity-based antagonisms in society, 2) high parental expectations related to their children’s performance, team success, and development, the high cost of hockey, hockey’s cultural significance as Canada’s game, and the lack of leverage leagues and arenas to punish spectator misbehaviour, 3) the layout of arenas and the rules around alcohol at particular arenas, perceived ‘bad’ refereeing, illegal play, or unfair ice time allotments, higher levels of on-ice violence and injuries, and rivalries, 4) spectators trying to coach from the stands and/or yelling at referees and coaches, and 5) the behaviour and demeanour of spectators, coaches, referees, and even the players on the ice.

Early Sport Specialization and Relative Age Effect: Prevalence and Influence on Perceived Competence in Ice Hockey Players.

The relative age effect (RAE) and early sport specialization (ESS) have been of growing interest in the sports world, especially in ice hockey, because of their potential adverse effects. However, little is known about their distribution within each level of play in Canadian minor ice hockey, or whether they influence young people’s perceived competence, a variable of interest in long-term sports development. A sample of elite adolescent players (N = 204) and a sample of recreational and competitive players (N = 404) were used to measure these constructs, and chi-square tabulations were conducted to compare their distribution. Our results reveal that RAE (χ2 = 20.03, p < 0.01, Cramer’s V = 0.13) and ESS (χ2 = 66.14, p < 0.001, Cramer’s V = 0.24) are present, but there are apparently no gender differences in their distributions. Neither the level of RAE nor ESS seems to affect the perceived competence of the players, regardless of gender. The results of this study highlight the presence of RAE and ESS in Canadian minor ice hockey, especially at the elite level, but indicate that they do not affect the self-perception of ice hockey players. Additional research on these concepts is needed to obtain a complete picture of their potential impact on sports development.

Relative Age Effect in Canadian Hockey: Prevalence, Perceived Competence and Performance.

The term “relative age effect” (RAE) is used to describe a bias in which participation in sports (and other fields) is higher among people who were born at the beginning of the relevant selection period than would be expected from the distribution of births. In sports, RAEs may affect the psychological experience of players as well as their performance. This article presents 2 studies. Study 1 aims to verify the prevalence of RAEs in minor hockey and test its associations with players' physical self-concept and attitudes toward physical activities in general. Study 2 verifies the prevalence of the RAE and analyzes the performance of Canadian junior elite players as a function of their birth quartile. In study 1, the sample is drawn from 404 minor hockey players who have evolved from a recreational to an elite level. Physical self-concept and attitudes toward different kinds of physical activities were assessed via questionnaires. Results showed that the RAE is prevalent in minor hockey at all competition levels. Minor differences in favor of Q1-born players were observed regarding physical self-concept, but not attitudes. In study 2, data analyses were conducted from the 2018–2019 Canadian Hockey League database. Birth quartiles were compared on different components of performance by using quantile regression on each variable. Results revealed that RAEs are prevalent in the CHL, with Q1 players tending to outperform Q4 players in games played and power-play points. No other significant differences were observed regarding anthropometric measures and other performance outcomes. RAEs are still prevalent in Canadian hockey. Building up perceived competence and providing game-time exposure are examples of aspects that need to be addressed when trying to minimize RAEs in ice hockey.

Hockey Is Not for Everyone, But It Could Be

Steve Kroger, president and COO of Hockey Canada, is contemplating how to attract and retain more young people who are Black, Indigenous, and People of Color in minor hockey (ages 4–18 years). Hockey Canada the governing association for amateur hockey in the country has created programs that make the sport accessible for more people to try, yet Steve recognizes there is still a lot of work that needs to be done to increase participation rates among Black, Indigenous, and People of Color athletes. Drawing on a policy paper for anti-racism in Canadian hockey, Steve tasks his team with developing strategies aimed at making the sport more inclusive and boosting participation.

Exposure to brain trauma in six age divisions of minor ice hockey

Acute and chronic neurological risks associated with brain trauma sustained in professional ice hockey has generated concern for youth participants. Minor hockey is a different game when compared to elite players presenting distinctive risk factors for each age division. Objective measures of brain trauma exposure were documented for six divisions in minor ice hockey; U7, U9, U11, U13, U15, U18. Game video analysis, physical reconstruction and computational modelling was employed to capture the event conditions, frequency of impacts, frequency of high strain magnitude (>0.17) impacts, and cumulative trauma. The results showed proportional differences in the event conditions; event type, closing velocity, and head impact location, informing the improvement of age appropriate protection, testing protocols, and safety standards. Frequency of events were highest for U7 when players were learning to skate, and again in U18 as game physicality increases. No significant difference was observed in frequency of high magnitude impacts across age divisions. A peak in high magnitude impacts was empirically observed at both U7 and U15 where skill development in skating and body checking, respectively, were most prominent. Finally, a cumulative trauma metric incorporating frequency and magnitude of impacts provided a detailed analysis of trauma exposure provides for a targeted approach to managing injury risk specific to age division. Objective measures of brain trauma exposure identified in the current study are important to inform strategy, guide legislation and initiate policy for safe play in minor ice hockey.

A retrospective analysis of the development of psychological skills and characteristics among National Hockey League players

ABSTRACT The acquisition of psychological skills and characteristics (PSCs) is an important aspect of career development in sport. PSCs may equip athletes with resources they need to navigate career transitions. Little attention has been paid to the development of PSCs in the careers of professional ice hockey players. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the development of PSCs among National Hockey League (NHL) players. Using interpretive description methodology, we conducted individual semi-structured interviews with six NHL players (4 current players, 2 retired players). Data were transcribed verbatim and subjected to a reflexive thematic analysis. Results were organised around three career stages (minor, junior, and professional hockey). In minor hockey, participants developed interpersonal (teamwork, leadership, accountability, and being a good teammate) and individual (work ethic, discipline, and commitment) psychological characteristics within a supportive social environment. During junior hockey, participants developed performance-oriented psychological characteristics (dealing with adversity, focus on the present, emotional regulation, having confidence in one’s abilities and a positive attitude) and psychological skills (reframing adversity as a challenge) arising from experiences of adversity and success. Finally, during professional hockey, they developed and refined performance-oriented psychological skills (visualisation, self-talk, reflection, and thought-stopping) while also focusing on being a good teammate to promote their career longevity. These findings indicate there was a chronological pattern in the development of PSCs among the NHL players studied. A practical implication is that building foundational psychological characteristics may facilitate the later development of performance-oriented PSCs.

Sport attendance behavior spectrum: motivators, constraints and context

PurposeThe purpose of this paper was to explore a new sport attendance behavior spectrum framework where sport consumer behavior is not derived from just a dichotomy of a motivator positively impacting attendance or a constraint negatively impacting attendance. Rather, when accounting for the context of the setting (e.g. sport, playing level, locality, patron type, etc.), some areas belong on a spectrum that fluctuates between positive and negative impacts on attendance that are dependent on the context of the given environment.Design/methodology/approachThrough factor analysis and structural equation modeling, the proposed model attempted to explain relationships between five second-order factors and game attendance, which expanded to include the new internal contextual and external contextual factors, and ultimately team fandom.FindingsThe results indicated three significant main effects where internal contextual exhibited a positive relationship with attendance, while constraints and external contextual demonstrated a negative relationship. Internal and external motives were not significant. Further, the moderating effect of high and low sport interest groupings largely indicated no significant spectator differences. The model explained 24% of the variance in attendance, and attendance accounted for 41% of the variance in team fandom.Originality/valueAttendance is intricate, and this study highlighted the importance of considering and adapting to the sporting context as some factors exist on a sport attendance behavior spectrum and differently impact spectators positively or negatively, given the context of the setting. Further, in this lower-level sport setting, consumers viewed minor league hockey more as a leisure commodity than a premier sport contest.

Examining the impact of the Respect in Sport Parent Program on the psychosocial experiences of minor hockey athletes

ABSTRACT Models of positive youth development suggest that athletes may be influenced by parent education programmes; however, there is little research examining the impact of such programmes on athlete outcomes. This study examined the impact of the Respect in Sport Parent Program on athlete outcomes among minor hockey players over three years. This study consisted of cross-sectional and longitudinal online surveys measuring athletes’ positive and negative developmental experiences, prosocial and antisocial behaviours, parental support and pressure, and sport enjoyment and commitment. Athletes completed at least one online survey during the study period (N = 366; 84.2% males; 14–19 years of age; M = 15.4 years), and 83 athletes completed multiple surveys for longitudinal analyses. Cross-sectional results comparing athletes in leagues adopting the programme at different time points indicated significant differences in prosocial behaviours towards teammates. Multilevel longitudinal analyses revealed improvements in athletes’ antisocial behaviours towards opponents, initiative, goal setting, and cognitive skills over time, regardless of whether they were in a league that implemented the programme. However, athletes in leagues that implemented the programme during the study reported greater improvements in antisocial behaviours towards opponents, and there were trends with respect to improved personal and social skills. These findings provide suggestions to improve the delivery and impact of parent education programmes in youth sport.

Comparing concussion rates as reported by hockey Canada with head contact events as observed across minor ice-hockey age categories

Head injuries in elite and youth sport have garnered growing public attention in part because of high-profile cases of professional athletes suffering career-ending/threatening concussions and because of the increase in medical studies identifying how repeated concussive events can lead to long-term health problems, most notably degenerative brain disease. Public concerns around youth ice hockey are intensifying in light of recent evidence which suggests that effects of head injury are worse for youth than they are for athletes in later stages of life. To better understand concussion injury rate trends across all levels of youth hockey, this paper provides a retrospective analysis of concussion related hockey injury as recorded in Hockey Canada’s Injury Reporting System from the period covering 2009 to 2016, combined with two years of observational research documenting head contact events in minor hockey in the Ottawa and Gatineau regions of Ontario and Quebec. By comparing two different data sets through different methodological designs, it provides important insight into the levels of head contact in youth hockey, how head contact is occurring, and offers commentary about the levels of risk players are exposed to in minor hockey in Canada.

Quest for a Hockey Franchise

This study documents the history of attracting and maintaining a hockey franchise for the City of St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador from 1991-2019. In that period, the City has been granted four franchises. Three have been relocated, while the fourth has completed its inaugural season which resulted in a league championship. It examines: the St. John’s Maple Leafs (1991-2005) of the American Hockey League (AHL); St. John’s Fog Devils of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL) (2005-2008); the St. John’s IceCaps (AHL), affiliated with the Winnipeg Jets (2011-2015) and Montreal Canadiens 2015-2017); and the Newfoundland Growlers in the ECHL, (2018-ongoing). The study focuses on the economic, marketing, strategic planning, and business modelling for a hockey franchise in three hockey leagues, AHL, QMJHL, and ECHL to gauge the long-term sustainability of a hockey franchise in St. John’s. It analyzes key success factors for minor league hockey franchises and speculates on the future direction of the current franchise.

When Culture Meets Capital: Commercialism, National Identity, and Vancouver’s Initial Attempt to Join the NHL

In 1966, the National Hockey League (NHL) expanded for the first time since the 1920s, doubling its size from six teams to twelve. Although hockey was still perceived as a distinctly Canadian passion, none of the NHL’s six new teams were located in Canada. The disappointment across the country was palpable, especially in Canada’s third-largest city, Vancouver, which had applied to be one of the expansion locations. A stable presence in minor league hockey on Canada’s west coast for decades, it seemed only natural that Vancouver, as the lone bidder from the ostensible birthplace of ice hockey, would be tapped for NHL expansion. This paper examines Vancouver’s attempted entry into the NHL and argues that the forces of commercialism and national identity, combined with political maneuvering among NHL owners, not only influenced the content and trajectory of the Vancouver bid, but also contributed to its ultimate failure.

Facilitating Positive Youth Development in Elite Youth Hockey: Exploring Coaches’ Capabilities, Opportunities, and Motivations

Youth sport has been identified as a viable means to facilitate positive youth development (PYD) and nurture fully prepared and contributing adults. However, questions have arisen regarding elite youth sport as a context to effectively foster PYD, and specifically the role of the coach in this process. To explore how coaches facilitate PYD in elite youth sport, the first author immersed himself in the elite youth hockey setting as an assistant coach. Using an ethnographic research design, he observed four AAA minor hockey head coaches of four teams in a large urban center in Ontario over the course of one season. In addition, each coach participated in two semistructured interviews. Framed within the COM-B model, we examined how coaches’ capabilities, opportunities, and motivations influenced their behaviors related to facilitating PYD. The coaches discussed and demonstrated several behaviors (e.g., setting high standards, providing leadership opportunities, communicating with the athletes) with the potential to facilitate PYD; however, the sport structure (i.e., professional sports model that focuses on competition and performance from early childhood) often restricted their ability to do so. Further, coaches’ own motivations to achieve performance success presented a challenge to fostering PYD on some occasions. The results are situated within PYD literature and may evoke practical considerations for elite youth sport coaches aiming to foster PYD more effectively. Lay summary: Four AAA minor hockey coaches were interviewed and observed over the course of a season. Although the coaches were capable and motivated when it came to fostering the personal development of their players, the performance-oriented structure of the minor hockey system meant that coaches often prioritized winning over player development.

LO47: Concussions in minor hockey players before and after implementation of a policy to limit body checking

Introduction: Concussions are one of the most common sports-related injuries presenting to emergency departments (EDs), and are particularly frequent among players of contact sports such as ice hockey (hockey). Studies of youth hockey players report increased concussion incidence when participating in levels of hockey that allow body-checking. In 2016, an Edmonton minor hockey organization implemented a policy to remove body checking from play for non-elite levels of Bantam (13-14 years) and Midget (15-17 years). This study aimed to evaluate the effect of this policy on occurrence of concussions in male minor hockey players. Methods: Alberta Health Services Sport and Recreation codes (SR = 54) were used to identify Bantam and Midget hockey players presenting to Edmonton Zone emergency departments (ED) during the 2013/2014 to 2016/2017 hockey seasons from the National Ambulatory Care Record System. Injured hockey players with a concussion were identified using International Classification of Diseases 10-CA diagnosis code S06.0. Odds ratios (OR) of concussions among total hockey injuries before (2013-2016) and after (2016-2017) the policy are reported with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Differences were assessed using Pearson's χ2 test. Results: During the study period, 1978 minor hockey players presented to an Edmonton Zone ED with a hockey-related injury, including 272 players with a concussion (14%). Most of the injuries occurred to Midget players (n = 1274). The proportions of concussion were similar before and after the policy change for players of all ages (OR = 0.78; 95% CI: 0.37 to 0.92) and for injured Bantam players (OR = 0.97; 95% CI: 0.59 to 1.55); however, there was a significant reduction in concussions as a proportion of all injuries for Midget players before and after the policy change (OR = 0.61; 95% CI: 0.36 to 1.00). Conclusion: In the initial year of implementation, the policy to limit body-checking to elite levels of play had mixed results. While the policy change did not result in a significant reduction in concussions overall, or for Bantam players, Midget players did experience a significant reduction in concussions after the policy change. The reasons behind these age-related differences require further investigation. Moreover, further evaluation of the policy using additional years of post-policy data, as well as hockey registration numbers, is needed to evaluate the sustainability of its effect.

Mechanisms of Institutional Maintenance in Minor Hockey

Responding to a pressure to increase athlete enjoyment and improve athlete development, governing bodies in sport have sought to adapt policies and programs. This study describes a governing association’s failed attempt at selling an optional change to some local associations. Data were collected through semistructured interviews with coaches and board members within two local minor hockey associations and executive decision makers in a provincial governing association (Ontario Minor Hockey Association) in Ontario, Canada. The Ontario Minor Hockey Association sought to maintain the institution by influencing local associations to change the way minor hockey was played (i.e., adopting cross-ice play). They attempted to influence local associations through education, local change champions, and the success of other hockey associations that underwent the change. The two local associations in this study ultimately resisted a shift to cross-ice play, citing history and tradition, constrained organizational res...