Mining Workforce Research Articles

Light at the End of the Tunnel: Mining Justice and Health

The mining industry provides valuable mined commodities and financial support for communities worldwide. Mining has become safer for workers. Significant injustices, however, are created by mining companies for workers, local communities and the environment. Mining workers are amongst the world’s most vulnerable because of the dangerous nature of their work, inherent health risks, and problematic, neo-colonial ways in which the industry is governed. Given the scope of these problems, solutions are often challenging, yet this article proposes various responses to global mining inequities. In this article, examples of safe and adequately compensated programs to improve workers’ rights, environmental impacts, and social conditions related to mining will be discussed. Here, solutions to some problems caused by mining are examined, with a focus on workers’ health and human rights through unions and cooperatives, targeted programs for improving mental well-being, the feminization of the mining workforce; the possibility of reducing demand for mining products through reuse and reducing consumption. Ameriolating mining governance is key, through enhanced implementation of human rights, safety, and labor standards, specifically applying the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) to mining issues; mining justice organizations play a vital role, particularly in accountability and publicity of mining issues. Canada is spotlighted here as it houses approximately 75% of mining company headquarters, primarily due to favorable tax and investment conditions and the concentration of skilled labor. Greater unionization and cooperativization of mining workers hold great promise for improving health and safety conditions of miners. Feminizing the mining workforce promises to improve both productivity and profits. While mental health is often ignored, Australia’s Mates in Mining program has improved mental well-being and reduced depression and suicide amongst mining workers. Expansion of such programs worldwide would positively impact workers, their families, and improve productivity. Moreover, third-party certification for mining workers’ rights, such as Fairmined, ought to be expanded while universal human rights declarations ought to be upheld. Social justice movements improve worker’s rights, environmental impact and social conditions related to mining. In this article, the importance of improving larger socioeconomic and political conditions in which mining workers operate are also examined, such as reducing demand for mined commodities and recycling more effectively. Improving Indigenous land-based rights is another crucial aspect of creating more just mining practices. Mining offers many workers, particularly those in Canada and other high-income nations, a decent income and benefits. Equivalent wages and benefits ought to be paid to all mining workers worldwide. “It is possible to move from tunnel vision-profit-oriented mining practices which damage workers, communities and environment, to light at the end of the tunnel-- healthy workers, communities and environment”.

Aboriginal employment outcomes at Argyle Diamond Mine: What constitutes success, and for whom?

Indigenous participation in the Australian mining workforce has rapidly increased over the last 15 years, yet little is known about what outcomes have been achieved for those employed. Using a case study of Rio Tinto's Argyle Diamond Mine in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, this paper begins to explore the extent to which Aboriginal people succeeded in achieving, as articulated in the Indigenous land use agreement, “good careers at the same time as following their culture” (MPA, 2004:101). To consider this issue, we draw on elements of the Yap and Yu (2016, 2016a) Yawuru wellbeing indicators, on the basis that the structures and indicators of wellbeing followed by the Traditional Owners associated with the agreement have not been recorded in the wellbeing scholarship. With the mine closed in late 2020 after almost 40 years, the question of what outcomes Aboriginal employees have achieved is a critical one to consider. Although disaggregating the effects of mining employment from other aspects of the benefit stream within the agreement is not straightforward, a focus on the experiences of those Aboriginal employees at Argyle provides a corrective to the lack of empirical research over the last decade.

Artisanal gold mining in Kakamega and Vihiga counties, Kenya: potential human exposure and health risk

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) represents 20% of gold supply and 90% of gold mining workforce globally, which operates in highly informal setups. Pollutants from mined ores and chemicals introduced during gold processing pose occupational and inadvertent health risks to the extent that has not been well elucidated in Africa. Trace and major elements were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry in soil, sediment and water samples from 19 ASGM villages in Kakamega and Vihiga counties. Associated health risks for residents and ASGM workers were assessed. This paper focuses on As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni and Pb for which 96% of soil samples from mining and ore processing sites had As concentrations up to 7937 times higher than the US EPA 12 mg kg−1 standard for residential soils. Soil Cr, Hg and Ni concentrations in 98%, 49% and 68% of the samples exceeded respective USEPA and CCME standards, with 1–72% bioaccessibility. Twenty-five percentage of community drinking water sources were higher than the WHO 10 µg L−1 drinking water guideline. Pollution indices indicated significant enrichment and pollution of soils, sediment and water in decreasing order of As > Cr > Hg > Ni > Pb > Cd. The study revealed increased risks of non-cancer health effects (98.6) and cancer in adults (4.93 × 10−2) and children (1.75 × 10−1). The findings will help environment managers and public health authorities better understand the potential health risks in ASGM and support evidence-based interventions in ASGM processes, industrial hygiene and formulation of public health policy to protect residents and ASGM workers’ health in Kenya.

Diagnostic gold deportment studies and leaching behaviour of small-scale gold mining tailings from Eastern Region, Ghana

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sector employs about 80% of the mining workforce but only contributes about 20-30% of Ghana’s gold production. The low gold production is linked to low recoveries associated with the activities because ofinadequate understanding of the chemical, mineralogical and metallurgical characteristics of the ores. This study examined the metallurgical characteristics of typical small-scale gold mining tailings to understand their grinding characteristics, gold deportment and cyanidation behaviour. The gold deportment results showed that 96.1% of the gold in the samples is free milling (can be leached directly with cyanide and recovered through carbon adsorption), whilst the remaining 3.9% of the gold in the samples is associated/locked up with other mineral phases (carbonates, sulphides, carbonaceous matter and quartz). The gold-by-size distribution also indicated that 73.1% of the gold is contained in coarser size fractions (+150 µm), 14.96% isfrom–150 µm to +75 µm size range, and 11.83% is contained in the finer size distribution (–75 µm). This suggests that incorporating a gravity recovery system during processing will be highly advantageous. The leaching kinetics results showed that gold recoveries achieved within 8, 16 and 24 h were 68, 73.8 and 76.4%, respectively. The corresponding total cyanide consumption rates after 8, 16 and 24 h of leaching were 550, 580 and 600 ppm, respectively. Generally, the gold recoveries and the cyanide consumption rates agree with industrial practices/results. Overall, the outcomes of the study support the view that some small-scale gold mining tailings are economically viable, and hence can be re-processed through efficient processes such as carbon-in-leach/carbon-in-pulp.

Breaking Down Barriers

In the Kootenay region of British Columbia (BC), mining has historically been a male dominated sector. Natural resource dependent communities, such as those found in the Kootenay region, have traditionally lacked employment opportunities for women. In addition, women choosing to pursue careers in the mining sector can face numerous challenges. As part of the larger Regional Workforce Development in Rural BC project, this research focuses on ways to build a more gender diverse mining workforce in the Kootenay region. Building connections to planning theory and practice in the region, the paper investigates the opportunities available to women in rural resource communities, and the challenges they face regarding employment in the mining sector. Results show that in the Kootenay region there may be a shift occurring in mining company culture. More progressive policies and respectful workplace culture, combined with gender-oriented planning initiatives, appear to create a more gender inclusive mining sector. The results also show significant challenges associated with social infrastructure and supports, specifically a lack of child care spots, high rental and real estate prices, and the lack of opportunities for further education for women who want to enter the Kootenay mining workforce.

Geological and Mining Constraints on Historical Mine Production: The Case of Early Medieval Lead-Silver Mining at Melle, France

Early Medieval silver production for the Melle Pb-Ag deposit in western France has been estimated up to 15 tonnes per year over hundreds of years (Téreygeol, 2013) which would place it amongst the top silver mines of all times prior to the New World discoveries. However, this deposit has geological and mining characteristics economically unsuitable for substantial production, because it is thin, sub-horizontal and comprised of discontinuous pods. Furthermore, it is a Mississippi Valley type (MVT) base metal deposit, which are typically not major silver producers. There is no geological evidence for primary or secondary enrichment to generate silver-rich ore. Inaddition, the fact that Melle remained unmined in all later historical periods is enigmatic compared to the almost ubiquitous reworking of significant ore deposits elsewhere.In this paper, I discuss the geological characteristics, mining parameters, documented historical mining rates and workforce considerations, all of which can be used to constrain production estimates for Melle. The largest uncertainty for production estimates is the workforce size, which reflects scarce information about Carolingian Melle and its surroundings. A model employing realistic mining parameters and a workforce appropriate for a small mining village (100 miners/fire-setters, within a workforce of 250-300, from a settlement of at least 400-500) yields 52 tonnes of lead metal and 150 kg of silver per year. Doubling the workforce would double this estimate. Conversely, it could be half or less if mining was a seasonal activity between agricultural priorities such as harvesting and seeding.The previously claimed production rates require improbable mining assumptions together with at least 500 dedicated full-time miners and a population in the thousands. Furthermore, it would yield per capita silver productivity more than four times higher than in well-documented Early Modern operations that were leading silver deposits of their time. This seems unlikely. However, even at the much lower production levels, favoured here, Melle still might have been a major factor in the Carolingian economy, with its lead production perhaps as important as its silver.

Testing the Economic Strength of a Sustainable Base of the Pyramid

The mining industry has abundant leverage points as well as the potential to contribute to all the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). To date, significant efforts have been made to mitigate the negative impacts of mining and enhance its positive contributions, especially by large scale mining (LSM) houses. Nonetheless, a lot remains to be done in mining areas where people at the base of the pyramid operate. These areas are exploited by Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) actors who constitute 80% of the global mining workforce. The ASM industry is responsible for widespread negative environmental, social, and economic impacts. A lot of research has been done in ASM, but sustainable development remains far from being realized. In this study, we apply the institutional complexity lens to investigate forces impeding sustainability in this sector. Furthermore, we avoid applying any existing method of analysis and rather try synthesis as a methodological path in search for the missing knowledge. The results include identification of leverage points for sustainable development in fields where no large-scale mining houses exist; development of suitable business models; and a methodological contribution of holism to cases of institutional complexity.

Pathways to nickel mining employment among Inuit women in Nunavik, Canada and Kanak women in New Caledonia: A comparative study

This paper compares Inuit and Kanak women's participation in nickel mining employment in Canada and New Caledonia through a focused examination of three nickel mines: two in Nunavik, Quebec, Canada and one in the Northern Province of New Caledonia. Since the recent construction of two new nickel refineries, New Caledonia has experienced a dramatic feminization of its mining workforce across traditional mining employment and service-related employment. In Canada, meanwhile, despite targeted efforts by industry and community organizations to facilitate Inuit women's entry into nickel mining, women's participation in mining remains relatively low and stagnant. This paper first presents a comparison of employment data at all three mines to illustrate the dramatic divergences in demographic composition of the workforces. Second, drawing on interviews with key informants and historical context, we explore key factors that explain this divergence in Indigenous women's employment. We argue that Kanak women's access to mining employment is enabled by, one, the central place of mining in Kanak struggles for self-determination and, two, the daily commuting structure at the mine. In Nunavik, by contrast, limited Inuit control over mining development and the fly-in fly-out employment structure limit Inuit women's access to mining jobs. Despite these divergences, however, Indigenous women in both contexts face gendered expectations related to social reproduction that pose logistical and social barriers to their long-term participation in the industry.

Making a living in the diverse economy of concrete: Commoning in a contested quarry

The rapid expansion of urban development in Asia over the last 50 years has seen a rise in demand for building materials. From large construction companies to squatter settlers seeking to improve their housing, concrete is the building material of choice. In the Philippines there is plentiful supply of the limestone and aggregate (sand and gravel) required for concrete production. Alongside the large quarries owned by major corporations are small, often illegal quarries, supplying aggregate to the construction industry. In these shadow places informal miners scratch out a precarious livelihood. They are members of a vast artisanal and small‐scale mining (ASM) workforce that is global in extent. This paper situates informal aggregate mining in the diverse economy of concrete in the Philippines and within the context of global ASM studies. With a detailed study of one quarry on the edges of Metro Manila, it reveals how mining contributes to the survival portfolio of poor households. Without romanticising the lives of quarry labourers, we identify a range of negotiations by which informal miners create a community of commoners in a contested quarry site. This research provides insight into the capacities that informal miners could bring to designing more sustainable development pathways within and beyond the extractive industry.

Respiratory health of American Indian and Alaska Native coal miners participating in the Coal Workers' Health Surveillance Program, 2014-2019.

In 2014, a federal rule reduced occupational exposure limits to coal mine dust and expanded medical surveillance eligibility beyond underground miners to surface and contract coal miners. This expansion may have provided an opportunity for more American Indian and Alaska Native (AI/AN) coal miners to participate in screening, since many surface coal mines are located near AI/AN communities and may employ AI/AN miners. Therefore we sought to better understand the respiratory health of AI/AN coal miners by characterizing prevalence of coal workers' pneumoconiosis (CWP), progressive massive fibrosis (PMF), and abnormal lung function in this population. Descriptive analysis of 1405 chest radiographs and 627 spirometry test results for AI/AN miners who participated in the Coal Workers' Health Surveillance Program (CWHSP) during 2014-2019 was conducted. Most AI/AN miners (0-25+ years of tenure) were western United States residents (82.3%) and active surface miners (76.9%) with no underground tenure. Among miners with at least 10 years of tenure, prevalence of CWP was 3.0%, and of PMF was 0.3%. Lung function abnormalities were seen in 9.0% with primarily restrictive patterns. The prevalence of CWP, PMF, and lung function abnormality among active and former AI/AN coal miners was higher than seen in a larger CWHSP study of active western miners working primarily underground with 10+ years of tenure. Interventions that eliminate or control coal mine dust exposure, identify miners with CWP early, and limit respiratory disease progression and complications remain vital for eliminating the preventable adverse health effects of coal mining. Comprehensive demographic data on the coal mining workforce are needed to improve CWHSP participation assessment.

Modeling Mine Workforce Fatigue: Finding Leading Indicators of Fatigue in Operational Data Sets

Mine workers operate heavy equipment while experiencing varying psychological and physiological impacts caused by fatigue. These impacts vary in scope and severity across operators and unique mine operations. Previous studies show the impact of fatigue on individuals, raising substantial concerns about the safety of operation. Unfortunately, while data exist to illustrate the risks, the mechanisms and complex pattern of contributors to fatigue are not understood sufficiently, illustrating the need for new methods to model and manage the severity of fatigue’s impact on performance and safety. Modern technology and computational intelligence can provide tools to improve practitioners’ understanding of workforce fatigue. Many mines have invested in fatigue monitoring technology (PERCLOS, EEG caps, etc.) as a part of their health and safety control system. Unfortunately, these systems provide “lagging indicators” of fatigue and, in many instances, only provide fatigue alerts too late in the worker fatigue cycle. Thus, the following question arises: can other operational technology systems provide leading indicators that managers and front-line supervisors can use to help their operators to cope with fatigue levels? This paper explores common data sets available at most modern mines and how these operational data sets can be used to model fatigue. The available data sets include operational, health and safety, equipment health, fatigue monitoring and weather data. A machine learning (ML) algorithm is presented as a tool to process and model complex issues such as fatigue. Thus, ML is used in this study to identify potential leading indicators that can help management to make better decisions. Initial findings confirm existing knowledge tying fatigue to time of day and hours worked. These are the first generation of models and future models will be forthcoming.

Human factor risk management procedures applied in the case of open pit mine

Risk management aims to provide a controlled work environment to ensure the safe operation of the high-risk systems. It is a dynamic process which work in a continual state of change. The issue of human factor risk and rules and regulations in open pit mine is a main focus of this paper in order to develop predictive models of behavior of workers in relation to compliance with the procedures and rules. Presented survey was conducted in open pit coal mine, as high-risk system, involving 476 mineworkers. The survey was in the form of a questionnaire, consisting of approximately 45 questions. It aimed to find out the opinions of the mining workforce about risk attitude generally as well as about safety rules and regulations. The first goal was to determine factor with the biggest influence on risk of human factor. The second goal was creation model for prediction behavior of mining workers. The survey also aimed to examine: (a) major human risk factors at a specific open-pit mine site (b) mine workers' opinions about policies and procedures; (c) the manner in which mine safety rules and regulations are perceived and understood; (d) the frequency of deviation from rules and regulations; (e) attitudes related to risk taking and their interaction with rules and regulations; and (f) anticipate the behavior of mining workers with respect to compliance with policies and procedures. In addition, a case study is presented, related to failure of mining equipment, the SchRs 630 bucket wheel excavator, which had occurred due to excessive loads caused by a human factor, such as inadequate operation of the equipment. The goal here was to further relate the effects of the human factor to the structural integrity, by providing a reliable numerical model which could be used to determine the critical locations where failures could occur, and by combining this approach with the previously described risk analysis methodology, structure safety can be improved.

Creating a gender-inclusive mining industry: Uncovering the challenges of female mining stakeholders

The global mining industry is male dominated. In the US, women constitute 13% of the mining workforce and 16% of mining related college programs. Similar trends exist globally. Efforts are being made by educational institutions, mining companies and professional organizations to attract women to the industry to achieve a gender inclusive industry. Such efforts have yielded minimal dividends partly due to insufficient reliable data on challenges confronting female miners. To provide empirical data to guide such efforts, we undertook a survey to understand the reasons for low female participation in the industry with participants from Ghana, USA, Ireland, Canada and other countries. The survey sought to identify challenges faced by female mining stakeholders and availability of support facilities for handling these challenges. Open and closed ended questionnaires were administered through online platforms. The responses were analyzed quantitatively using summary statistics and qualitatively using thematic analysis. About 38% of the respondents expressed satisfaction with their current jobs. The high dissatisfaction rate stems from lower salaries compared to male counterparts (29%), gender-based discrimination (53%), sexual harassment (37%) and sexual demands during hiring (17%). The key hindrances to a gender inclusive mining sector have been grouped into seven themes including discrimination, harassment, gender ideologies, and lack of support. We propose a four-way mind map model requiring commitment from government, companies, chambers of mines, and employees to ensure a gender inclusive mining industry.

Factors supporting indigenous employee retention in the Australian mining industry: A case study of the Pilbara region

Indigenous employment is a key point of engagement between Indigenous people and mining companies. Over the past two decades, research shows that the Australian mining industry has increased the numbers of Indigenous employees within the mining workforce. However, less is known about how well the industry is retaining Indigenous employees and what factors support retention. This article begins to fill this gap by presenting outcomes of qualitative research undertaken with both former and current Indigenous employees of a major employer of Indigenous people in the Pilbara region of Western Australia. We elucidate the main reasons for turnover intention as articulated by Indigenous employees and examine the strategies available to mining companies to address voluntary turnover within this cohort. The findings suggest that a culturally competent non-Indigenous workforce, culturally appropriate support mechanisms and access to professional development opportunities are key retention factors. The paper concludes by arguing that the mining industry will need to focus both on ensuring a culturally safe workplace for its Indigenous employees, and on increasing the regional Indigenous labour pool, if it is to contribute to more sustainable outcomes.

REASSESSMENT OF RADIATION EXPOSURES OF UNDERGROUND NON-URANIUM MINE WORKERS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA

In the 1990, radon and radon progeny was reported to contribute approximately 70% of the average 1.4+1.0-mSv annual dose across 26 Western Australian underground non-uranium mines. The Western Australian underground mining workforce has expanded significantly, and parameters used to calculate doses have changed significantly, warranting a review of the 1990's data. The review concludes that doses received by the contemporary mining workforce has increased on average, by 5.4%, with annual dose estimates ranging from 0.53 to 3.56mSv, with a mean of 1.33mSv. Doses in 12 of the 23 underground mines exceed 1mSv and are required to comply with radiation safety legislation. It is estimated that 5400 underground workers will fall into the greater than 1-mSv category. The collective dose to the underground worker population has increased by 4.5 times from 3060 man mSv (2173 workers) to 13 669 man mSv (8597 workers).

Locating female ‘Voices’ in the Minamata Convention on Mercury in Sub-Saharan Africa: The case of Ghana

Countries that have ratified the Minamata Convention on Mercury, a United Nations-backed international treaty designed to protect human health and the environment from releases of mercury and mercuric compounds, are required to produce a National Action Plan (NAP). Each must state, very clearly, how the mercury being used at artisanal and small-scale gold mines will be phased out. In most areas of sub-Saharan Africa, however, devising a comprehensive NAP promises to be an enormous and indeed, challenging, undertaking. Here, the institutional capacity and resources, expertise and at times, commitment needed to capture the level of detail the Minamata Secretariat expects to be included in each NAP are woefully lacking. One of the more challenging tasks ahead, given the shortage of hard data available on the sector’s populations, production and activities, will be the design and implementation of appropriate educational, communication and support-related strategies for the ‘vulnerable populations’ who rely on work at artisanal and small-scale gold mines for their incomes. This is especially significant for women, who, despite accounting for at least 50 percent of the region’s artisanal and small-gold mine workforce, mostly carry out the manual work at the lower tiers of the sector’s labour hierarchies. Taking stock of this largely ‘invisible’ work, this paper reflects critically on the challenges with reducing women’s exposure to mercury at artisanal and small-scale gold mines in sub-Saharan Africa. It draws on findings from ongoing research in Ghana, the location of one of the largest and most dynamic artisanal and small-scale gold mining sectors in the region.

Solar has greater techno-economic resource suitability than wind for replacing coal mining jobs

Coal mining directly employs over 7 million workers and benefits millions more through indirect jobs. However, to meet the 1.5 °C global climate target, coal’s share in global energy supply should decline between 73% and 97% by 2050. But what will happen to coal miners as coal jobs disappear ?Answering this question is necessary to ensure a just transition and to ensure that politically powerful coal mining interests do not impede energy transitions. Some suggest that coal miners can transition to renewable jobs. However, prior research has not investigated the potential for renewable jobs to replace ‘local’ coal mining jobs. Historic analyses of coal industry declines show that coal miners do not migrate when they lose their jobs. By focusing on China, India, the US, and Australia, which represent 70% of global coal production, we investigate: (1) the local solar and wind capacity required in each coal mining area to enable all coal miners to transition to solar/wind jobs; (2) whether there are suitable solar and wind power resources in coal mining areas in order to install solar/wind plants and create those jobs; and (3) the scale of renewables deployment required to transition coal miners in areas suitable for solar/wind power. We find that with the exception of the US, several GWs of solar or wind capacity would be required in each coal mining area to transition all coal miners to solar/wind jobs. Moreover, while solar has more resource suitability than wind in coal mining areas, these resources are not available everywhere. In China, the country with the largest coal mining workforce, only 29% of coal mining areas are suitable for solar power. In all four countries, less than 7% of coal mining areas have suitable wind resources. Further, countries would have to scale-up their current solar capacity significantly to transition coal miners who work in areas suitable for solar development.

Helmet-CAM: Strategically Minimizing Exposures to Respirable Dust Through Video Exposure Monitoring.

Exposure to respirable crystalline silica (RCS) remains a serious health hazard to the US mining workforce who are potentially exposed as various ore bodies are drilled, blasted, hauled by truck, crushed, screened, and transported to their destinations. The current Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) permissible exposure limit (PEL) for RCS remains at approximately 100 μg/m3, but it is noteworthy that the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has lowered its PEL to 50 μg/ m3 (with enforcement dates staggered through 2022 for various sectors), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has held a 50 μg/m3 recommended standard since 1976. To examine a method for reducing RCS exposure using a NIOSH-developed video exposure monitoring (VEM) technology (referred to as Helmet-CAM), video and respirable dust concentration data were collected on eighty miners across seven unique mining sites. The data was then collated and partitioned using a thresholding scheme to determine exposures that were in excess of ten times the mean exposure for that worker. Focusing on these short duration, high magnitude exposures can provide insight to implement controls and interventions that can dramatically lower the employee's overall average exposure. In 19 of the 80 cases analyzed, it was found that exposure could be significantly lowered by 20% or more by reducing exposures that occur during just 10 min of work per 8-hour shift. This approach provides a method to quickly analyze and determine which activities are creating the greatest health concerns. In most cases, once identified, focused control technologies or behavioral modifications can be applied to those tasks.

Rules of Risk Management - Case Study of Open Pit Mine

The issue of human factor risk and rules and regulations in open pit mine is a main focus of this paper in order to develop predictive models of behavior of workers in relation to compliance with the procedures and rules. Presented survey was conducted in open pit coal mine, as high-risk system, involving 476 mineworkers. The survey was in the form of a questionnaire, consisting of 45 questions, aimed to find out the opinions of the mining workforce about risk attitude generally as well as about safety rules and regulations.

Increased prevalence of obesity, diabetes mellitus and hypertension with associated risk factors in a mine-based workforce, Democratic Republic of Congo.

IntroductionThe burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) is increasing rapidly in low- and middle-income countries, with the largest portion occurring in Africa. Results from earlier baseline measures on obesity, diabetes and hypertension (ODH) in the Tenke Fungurume Mining (TFM) workforce in 2010 showed high proportions of overweight, pre-diabetic and pre-hypertensive individuals, predicting an upward trend in the burden of ODH over time. The 2010-2015 longitudinal trends on ODH and related risk factors among the TFM workforce is presented herein, and projects the consequent burden of these diseases on the workforce by 2025 if an effective prevention program is not implemented.MethodsA longitudinal, retrospective cohort study with 3-time intervals was conducted using occupational health records collected on all employees and contractors who had a pre-employment or follow up medical checkups covering the period between January 2010 and December 2015. Repeated paired t tests measured changes in mean values of quantitative risk factors, while a chi-square test assessed changes in prevalence and categorical risk factors over time. A linear projection model was used to predict the consequent morbidity of ODH for the subsequent 10 years up to 2025.ResultsBetween 2010 and 2015, prevalence increased from 4.5% to 11.1% for obesity, 11.9% to 15.6% for diabetes, and 18.2% to 26.5% for hypertension. By 2025, provided no prevention program is implemented, prevalence is predicted to reach 25%, 24% and 42% respectively for obesity, diabetes and hypertension.ConclusionWithout implementation of a comprehensive NCD prevention plan, the burden of ODH and other NCDs is predicted to increase dramatically in the TFM workforce. Alone or combined, NCDs have the potential to dramatically increase operational costs while decreasing productivity over time.