Minimize Water Use Research Articles

High productivity of soilless strawberry cultivation under rain shelters

Abstract The effect of rain shelters on the performance of the day-neutral strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) Monterey cultivar was studied in northern Quebec in trials extending over 2 years. The main objective of the study was to evaluate the benefits of growing strawberry crops under plastic rain shelters in terms of yield, fruit quality, disease incidence and economical returns for soilless strawberry production. Five treatments were carried out and these included four − under rain shelters cultivation (T1 to T4) and one under open-air conditions (the Control, C). Under rain shelters conditions, plants were grown in either peat (PE; T1 treatment) or peat-sawdust (PS25; T2 treatment) substrates. Early forcing of bare-root plants (T3) in combination with a rain shelter cover was also carried out in an attempt to generate consistent early yields by the end of July as such would allow producers to capture a niche market for strawberries in Quebec. Finally in T4, the PE substrate was laid onto a capillary mat to determine the potential of sub-surface water retention technology to minimize water use. In comparison to the Control treatment, protected cultivation led to a significantly lower incidence of strawberry mildew [Sphaerotheca macularis (Wall. ex Fries)] and consistently higher marketable yields which largely compensated for the initial costs associated with the rain shelters. When grown under greenhouse conditions, forced plants had a significant production peak earlier, coinciding with the period of high prices for fresh strawberries in 2013. However, the economical analysis revealed that this method was not always profitable. Balancing economical and environmental considerations, the conditions of the T4 treatment were found to be best for generating both consistent water savings and profits (CAD $ 724–1356 per 0.1 ha) compared to the Control. Taken together, our results highlight the potential for rain shelters for soilless strawberry production, and should be a more profitable and environmentally friendly cultivation method for strawberry producers.

Increased food production and reduced water use through optimized crop distribution

Growing demand for agricultural commodities for food, fuel and other uses is expected to be met through an intensification of production on lands that are currently under cultivation. Intensification typically entails investments in modern technology — such as irrigation or fertilizers — and increases in cropping frequency in regions suitable for multiple growing seasons. Here we combine a process-based crop water model with maps of spatially interpolated yields for 14 major food crops to identify potential differences in food production and water use between current and optimized crop distributions. We find that the current distribution of crops around the world neither attains maximum production nor minimum water use. We identify possible alternative configurations of the agricultural landscape that, by reshaping the global distribution of crops within current rainfed and irrigated croplands based on total water consumption, would feed an additional 825 million people while reducing the consumptive use of rainwater and irrigation water by 14% and 12%, respectively. Such an optimization process does not entail a loss of crop diversity, cropland expansion or impacts on nutrient and feed availability. It also does not necessarily invoke massive investments in modern technology that in many regions would require a switch from smallholder farming to large-scale commercial agriculture with important impacts on rural livelihoods. The current distribution of crops around the world neither attains maximum production nor minimum water use, according to a crop water model and yield data. An optimized crop distribution could feed an additional 825 million people and substantially reduce water use.

Playing quality, growth rate, thatch accumulation and tolerance to moss and annual bluegrass invasion as influenced by irrigation strategies on red fescue putting greens

AbstractConversion from annual bluegrass or bentgrasses to red fescue could be an efficient way to minimise water use on golf greens. Our objective was to investigate the influences of four irrigation strategies on red fescue water use efficiency, turf quality, growth rate and resistance to annual bluegrass and moss invasion. The trial was carried out from August 2013 to August 2015 on a green established according to USGA recommendations under a rainout shelter at Landvik, Norway (58 °N). On average for 2 years, irrigation to field capacity once per week (FC 1) and deficit irrigation to 60% of FC three times per week (DEF 3) reduced the water consumption by 49% and 72% relative to irrigation to FC three times per week (FC 3). Both DEF 3 and FC 1 retained acceptable turf quality and reduced annual bluegrass in the second year by about one‐third. Better control of annual bluegrass was obtained with deficit irrigation to 60% of FC once per week (DEF 1), but this treatment did not produce acceptable turf quality. Compared with FC 3, DEF 3, FC 1 and DEF 1 gave harder surfaces and reduced the moss invasion in the second year by 66%, 90% and 93%, respectively. Irrigation effects on root development and thatch organic matter after 2 years were not significant, although the thatch layer depth was 3–4 mm greater in FC 1 than in the other treatments. In conclusion, DEF 3 and FC 1 are both effective irrigation strategies for managing red fescue greens with less water use.

Hydrogels in Brazilian Agriculture

The rational use of water is essentual as it is a finite resource. Consequerntly, studies of methids that minimize water use water are essential. As a result, agricultural hydrogels have been extensively tested in as a means of promoting agriculture improvements because of their water- and nutriente-retention characteristics. However, even though hydrogels are used in several sectors of Brazilian agriculture, there are still very few
 studies on their applications, the best methods and the quantities to be used. Consequently, there is a need for research into the applicability of this technology in Brazil, so that future research needs can be identified and appropriate decisions made at the production level. Therefore, the aim of this study was to collate currently available information on the applicability of agricultural hydrogels in Brazilian agriculture. Over the last decade, forestry is the sector in Brazil that has most studied and used hydrogels, but others such as fruit- and coffeegrowing have also been involved. The method of applying the polymer in granules directly mixed-in with growth substrates is the most used in the production of seedlings. However, use of hydrated gel at planting sites has also been explored. While synthetic hydrogels are most commonly used, those made of natural materials have great potential due to the low preparation costs and their in-soil biodegradability. The quantities
 of hydrogel used vary according to the target species, application method and objective.

Post harvest management of Karnal bunt (Tilletia indica) in wheat by mechanical seed processing

Experiment was conducted on Centella asiatica (L.), Urban an important hydrophytic perennial medicinal plant tostudy the effect of water regimes on biomass production, secondary metabolites content and production, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), water economic efficiency (WEE) and economic returns in upland ecosystem. Maximum leaf area (22.1 cm2/leaf) and number of leaves (11.4/node) were recorded at 1.4 and 0.4 IW/CPE water regime, respectively. However, irrigation at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio produced optimum leaf area and number of leaves per node. Water application at medium regimes at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio produced significantly highest dry herbage yield (1301 kg/ha), triterpenes content (1.7%) and their yield (22.3 kg/ha), and gross return (182.1×103 `/ha), net return (60.3×103 `/ha) and benefits cost ratio (1.5). Significantly higher IWUE (6.9 kg/ha cm) and WEE (295 `/ha cm) were recorded at 0.4 IW/CPE ratio with minimum water use and longer application intervals. Thus, water application at medium regimes (0.8 IW/ CPE ratio) found optimum to produce quality herbal biomass under commercial cultivation in uplands ecosystem.

Herbal biomass, secondary metabolites, water use and economic efficiencies of Centella asiatica influenced with irrigation water regimes

Experiment was conducted on Centella asiatica (L.), Urban an important hydrophytic perennial medicinal plant to study the effect of water regimes on biomass production, secondary metabolites content and production, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE), water economic efficiency (WEE) and economic returns in upland ecosystem. Maximum leaf area (22.1 cm2 Rupees/ha), net return (60.3×103 Rupees/ha) and benefits cost ratio (1.5). Significantly higher IWUE (6.9 kg/ha cm) and WEE (295 Rupees/ha cm) were recorded at 0.4 IW/CPE ratio with minimum water use and longer application intervals. Thus, water application at medium regimes (0.8 IW/ CPE ratio) found optimum to produce quality herbal biomass under commercial cultivation in uplands ecosystem.

Food Processing and Waste Within the Nexus Framework

The purpose of this review is to present the challenges and potential solutions regarding the food manufacturing industry and waste production within the WEF (Water, Energy, and Food) nexus framework. Prevention and recovery solutions to alleviate waste from food producing (farm), industrial/retail (processing), and consuming (consumers) are considered. Breakthroughs in food processing have focused on water reuse by treatment and decreasing waste in order to minimize water use. Solutions for farm waste recovery have been employed by feeding animals and compost. There are opportunities and risks to use waste as a resource that leads to reduced water and energy usage from farm to table. New technology could help farmers, processors, and consumers benefit from waste by means of better management. Reduced waste of food and water also leads to improved environmental conditions and sustainability, but updated best management practices are needed to minimize risk (both economic and health).

High temperature ultralow water content carbon dioxide-in-water foam stabilized with viscoelastic zwitterionic surfactants

Ultralow water content carbon dioxide-in-water (C/W) foams with gas phase volume fractions (ϕ) above 0.95 (that is <0.05 water) tend to be inherently unstable given that the large capillary pressures that cause the lamellar films to thin. Herein, we demonstrate that these C/W foams may be stabilized with viscoelastic aqueous phases formed with a single zwitterionic surfactant at a concentration of only 1% (w/v) in DI water and over a wide range of salinity. Moreover, they are stable with a foam quality ϕ up to 0.98 even for temperatures up to 120°C. The properties of aqueous viscoelastic solutions and foams containing these solutions are examined for a series of zwitterionic amidopropylcarbobetaines, R-ONHC3H6N(CH3)2CH2CO2, where R is varied from C12–14 (coco) to C18 (oleyl) to C22 (erucyl). For the surfactants with long C18 and C22 tails, the relaxation times from complex rheology indicate the presence of viscoelastic wormlike micelles over a wide range in salinity and pH, given the high surfactant packing fraction. The apparent viscosities of these ultralow water content foams reached more than 120cP with stabilities more than 30-fold over those for foams formed with the non-viscoelastic C12–14 surfactant. At 90°C, the foam morphology was composed of ∼35μm diameter bubbles with a polyhedral texture. The apparent foam viscosity typically increased with ϕ and then dropped at ϕ values higher than 0.95–0.98. The Ostwald ripening rate was slower for foams with viscoelastic versus non-viscoelastic lamellae as shown by optical microscopy, as a consequence of slower lamellar drainage rates. The ability to achieve high stabilities for ultralow water content C/W foams over a wide temperature range is of interest in various technologies including polymer and materials science, CO2 enhanced oil recovery, CO2 sequestration (by greater control of the CO2 flow patterns), and possibly even hydraulic fracturing with minimal use of water to reduce the requirements for wastewater disposal.

A spreadsheet model to select vegetables planting dates for maximum yield and water use efficiency

Vegetables planting dates affect yield and water consumption. This study aimed to develop a mathematical model to select the best date/duration to start sowing vegetables to maximize yield and minimize water use which increases the water use efficiency. The model was developed in an easy graphical interface that allows simple selection of the region and crop from dropdown lists, then to display the possible ranges with two degrees of suitability; one based of heat units, and the other avoids heat shocks additionally. The model is packed with a worldwide climatic database for 12,215 climatic stations, in addition to a set of 123 crops with different growing conditions. The model was verified to some published data in Maryland/USA and in Delta of Egypt using an efficiency indicator that considers all the results to reality matching states; like full matching, underestimation, and overestimation. The model’s average overall efficiency was 80% and 71% for the two case studies. The model is available for public, and sharing the results of testing is highly appreciated.

An Approach for Sustainable Industrial Water Management: A Case Study

This study is to evaluate the present water management practices followed at an industry by conducting facility survey and preliminary water audit. Based on the observation and audit, opportunities for water conservation, by adopting an integrated water management strategy was suggested. Also water Acts related to industrial water management was studies to understand its role in pressurizing industries for water stewardship. The work demonstrated that many opportunities existed to improve water conservation through technical, cultural and behavioural adaptations. These included the use of alternate water sources such as rainwater runoff, reuse of water within process units, and need for an overarching water policy to minimise water use and effluent discharge. A conceptual model for water metering and accounting was developed. To involve all the stakeholders for sustainable water management, an awareness program for the employees, interview with the water managers were conducted and their view and opinion on water management were given importance.

Optimizing water depth for wetland‐dependent wildlife could increase wetland restoration success, water efficiency, and water security

Securing water for wetland restoration efforts will be increasingly difficult as human populations demand more water and climate change alters the hydrologic cycle. Minimizing water use at a restoration site could help justify water use to competing users, thereby increasing future water security. Moreover, optimizing water depth for focal species will increase habitat quality and the probability that the restoration is successful. We developed and validated spatial habitat models to optimize water depth within wetland restoration projects along the lower Colorado River intended to benefit California black rails (Laterallus jamaicensis coturniculus). We observed a 358% increase in the number of black rails detected in the year after manipulating water depth to maximize the amount of predicted black rail habitat in two wetlands. The number of black rail detections in our restoration sites was similar to those at our reference site. Implementing the optimal water depth in each wetland decreased water use while simultaneously increasing habitat suitability for the focal species. Our results also provide experimental confirmation of past descriptive accounts of black rail habitat preferences and provide explicit water depth recommendations for future wetland restoration efforts for this species of conservation concern; maintain surface water depths between saturated soil and 100 mm. Efforts to optimize water depth in restored wetlands around the world would likely increase the success of wetland restorations for the focal species while simultaneously minimizing and justifying water use.

A review of water and greenhouse gas impacts of unconventional natural gas development in the United States

AbstractThis paper reviews recent developments in the production and use of unconventional natural gas in the United States with a focus on water and greenhouse gas emission implications. If unconventional natural gas in the U.S. is produced responsibly, transported and distributed with little leakage, and incorporated into integrated energy systems that are designed for future resiliency, it could play a significant role in realizing a more sustainable energy future; however, the increased use of natural gas as a substitute for more carbon intensive fuels will alone not substantially alter world carbon dioxide concentration projections.This paper reviews recent developments in the production and use of unconventional natural gas in the United States with a focus on environmental impacts. Specifically, we focus on water management and greenhouse gas emission implications. If unconventional natural gas in the United States is produced responsibly, transported and distributed with little leakage, and incorporated into integrated energy systems that are designed for future resiliency, it could play a significant role in realizing a more sustainable energy future. The cutting-edge of industry water management practices gives a picture of how this transition is unfolding, although much opportunity remains to minimize water use and related environmental impacts. The role of natural gas to mitigate climate forcing is less clear. While natural gas has low CO2 emissions upon direct use, methane leakage and long term climate effects lead to the conclusion that increased use of natural gas as a substitute for more carbon intensive fuels will not substantially alter world carbon dioxide concentration projections, and that other zero or low carbon energy sources will be needed to limit GHG concentrations. We conclude with some possible avenues for further work.

Microalgae as sustainable renewable energy feedstock for biofuel production.

The world energy crisis and increased greenhouse gas emissions have driven the search for alternative and environmentally friendly renewable energy sources. According to life cycle analysis, microalgae biofuel is identified as one of the major renewable energy sources for sustainable development, with potential to replace the fossil-based fuels. Microalgae biofuel was devoid of the major drawbacks associated with oil crops and lignocelluloses-based biofuels. Algae-based biofuels are technically and economically viable and cost competitive, require no additional lands, require minimal water use, and mitigate atmospheric CO2. However, commercial production of microalgae biodiesel is still not feasible due to the low biomass concentration and costly downstream processes. The viability of microalgae biodiesel production can be achieved by designing advanced photobioreactors, developing low cost technologies for biomass harvesting, drying, and oil extraction. Commercial production can also be accomplished by improving the genetic engineering strategies to control environmental stress conditions and by engineering metabolic pathways for high lipid production. In addition, new emerging technologies such as algal-bacterial interactions for enhancement of microalgae growth and lipid production are also explored. This review focuses mainly on the problems encountered in the commercial production of microalgae biofuels and the possible techniques to overcome these difficulties.

Green dialysis: the environmental challenges ahead.

The US Environmental Protection Agency Resource Conservation website begins: "Natural resource and energy conservation is achieved by managing materials more efficiently--reduce, reuse, recycle," yet healthcare agencies have been slow to heed and practice this simple message. In dialysis practice, notable for a recurrent, per capita resource consumption and waste generation profile second to none in healthcare, efforts to: (1) minimize water use and wastage; (2) consider strategies to reduce power consumption and/or use alternative power options; (3) develop optimal waste management and reusable material recycling programs; (4) design smart buildings that work with and for their environment; (5) establish research programs that explore environmental practice; all have been largely ignored by mainstream nephrology. Some countries are doing far better than others. In the United Kingdom and some European jurisdictions, exceptional recent progress has been made to develop, adopt, and coordinate eco-practice within dialysis programs. These programs set an example for others to follow. Elsewhere, progress has been piecemeal, at best. This review explores the current extent of "green" or eco-dialysis practices. While noting where progress has been made, it also suggests potential new research avenues to develop and follow. One thing seems certain: as global efforts to combat climate change and carbon generation accelerate, the environmental impact of dialysis practice will come under increasing regulatory focus. It is far preferable for the sector to take proactive steps, rather than to await the heavy hand of government or administration to force reluctant and costly compliance on the un-prepared.

Effect of irrigation levels on vegetative growth and yield characteristics in white onion (Allium cepa L.) in Konkan region

An experiment was conducted at College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Dapoli to assess the effect of irrigation levels on vegetative growth and yield characteristics in white onion on micro-irrigation system. In the present investigation white onion variety Alibag local was tested under three irrigation levels namely I 1 ( no deficit), I 2 (20% deficit) and I 3 (40% deficit) on mini-sprinkler (M 1 ) and micro-sprinkler (M 2 ) irrigation methods, while the conventional check basin method was taken as control. The maximum average yield was attained in irrigation level I 1 as 39.82 t/ha, whiles the minimum average yield of 24.97 t/ha was recorded for irrigation level I 3 . The maximum yield of 42.37 t/ha was recorded for treatment combination M 2 I 1 followed by treatment combinations M 1 I 1 (37.26 t/ha) and M 2 I 2 (36.03 t/ha). In control treatment the yield of 17.52 t/ha was recorded. The maximum water use efficiency 14.51 q/ha-cm was reported in treatment combination M 2 I 1 and the minimum water use was found 10.98 q/ha-cm in treatment combination M 1 I 3 . The fertilizer use efficiency followed the same trend. The maximum fertilizer use efficiency 176.12 was recorded in treatment combination M 2 I 1 and minimum 99.54 was obtained in treatment combination M 1 I 3 . In control fertilizer use efficiency was 73.01, which was lowest amongst all treatments.

Effect of Extended Water Stress on Growth, Tiller Mortality and Nutrient Recovery Under System of Rice Intensification

System of rice intensification was initially introduced to increase rice productivity in India, but is recently popularized as promising water saving practice. Sustaining rice productivity with minimal use of water is the need of the day. In this background, an experiment was designed to assess the effect of variable degrees of water stress namely no-stress, mild-stress and prolonged-stress imposed throughout the crop growth by scheduling irrigation at 1, 3 and 5 days, respectively after disappearance of ponded water under system of rice intensification with two different planting geometry and two contrasting varieties. Results clearly demonstrated that mild and prolonged stress during late vegetative stage (45–75 days after transplanting) greatly (P ≤ 0.05) enhanced (30.3–41.5 %) crop growth rate while, any level of stress during reproductive phase reduced (8.8–10.8 %) the rate of crop growth. Despite of higher tiller production under stress condition, large number of tillers failed to convert in ear-bearing tillers indicating higher tiller mortality under stress environment. Meanwhile, tiller density was not confirmed as a yield determinant while, the rice yield had higher correlation with grain weight panicle−1 (r = 0.743*), filled grain percentage (r = 0.806*), test weight (r = 0.683*) and nutrient uptake. With increase in stress intensity, apparent recovery of nutrients significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced, and the decline rate was in the order of potassium > phosphorus > nitrogen. Rice crop imposed mild-stress maintained at par yield (P > 0.05) with no stress, however prolonged-stress resulted in significant yield loss. Thus, mild-stress throughout the crop growth can reduce the water requirement and would be an effective water management strategy under water limited conditions.

Conjunctive Surface and Groundwater Management in Utah: Implications for Oil Shale and Oil Sands Development

Unconventional fuel development will require scarce water resources. In an environment characterized by scarcity, and where most water resources are fully allocated, prospective development will require minimizing water use and seeking to use water resources in the most efficient manner. Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater provides just such an opportunity. Conjunctive use includes two main practices: First, integrating surface water diversions and groundwater withdrawals to maximize efficiency and minimize impacts on other resource users and ecological processes. Second, conjunctive use includes capturing surplus or unused surface water and injecting or infiltrating that water into groundwater aquifers in order to increase recharge rates. Conjunctive management holds promise as a means of addressing some of the West's most intractable problems. Conjunctive management can firm up water supplies by more effectively capturing spring runoff and surplus water, and by integrating its use with groundwater withdrawals; surface and groundwater use can be further integrated with managed aquifer recharge projects. Such integration can maximize water storage and availability, while simultaneously minimizing evaporative loss, reservoir sedimentation, and surface use impacts. Any of these impacts, if left unresolved, could derail commercial-scale unconventional fuel development. Unconventional fuel developers could therefore benefit from incorporating conjunctive use into theirmore » development plans. Despite its advantages, conjunctive use is not a panacea. Conjunctive use means using resources in harmony to maximize and stabilize long-term supplies it does not mean maximizing the use of two separate but interrelated resources for unsustainable short-term gains and it cannot resolve all problems or provide water where no unappropriated water exists. Moreover, conjunctive use may pose risks to ecological values forgone when water that would otherwise remain in a stream is diverted for aquifer recharge or other uses. To better understand the rapidly evolving field of conjunctive use, this Topical Report begins with a discussion of Utah water law, with an emphasis on conjunctive use issues. We contrast Utah's approach with efforts undertaken in neighboring states and by the federal government. We then relate conjunctive use to the unconventional fuel industry and discuss how conjunctive use can help address pressing challenges. While conjunctive management cannot create water where none exists, it does hold promise to manage existing resources in a more efficient manner. Moreover, conjunctive management reflects an important trend in western water law that could provide benefit to those contemplating activities that require large-scale water development.« less

EVALUATION OF SURGE AND CUTBACK FLOW FURROW IRRIGATION SYSTEMS FOR PEPPER (CAPSICUM ANNUUM) PRODUCTION

ABSTRACTThe aim of this field experiment was to evaluate surge, cutback and conventional flow furrow irrigation systems in terms of hydraulic, technical and agronomic performance measures for pepper production in Gambella Regional State, Ethiopia. The treatments consisted of two surges (SR1 = 1/3 cycle ratio and SR2 = 1/2 cycle ratio), one cutback (CB) and one conventional (C) flow furrow irrigation systems. The advance time ratios (ATR) recorded under the two surge treatments ranged from 0.57 to 0.70. Maximum application efficiency of 61.8%, storage efficiency of 95.1% and uniformity coefficient of 77.3% were recorded under SR1, whereas the lowest corresponding values of 52.8, 81.2 and 56.1% were recorded under C. Maximum deep percolation (23.6%) and tailwater (27.7%) losses were recorded from CB and C treatments, respectively, whereas SR1 and SR2, respectively, gave minimum deep percolation (14.3%) and tailwater (20.5%) losses. In terms of all agronomic performance measures, it was found that SR2 performed well, followed by SR1. However, the C treatment gave minimum yield (6450 kg ha−1), crop water productivity (17.5 kg ha−1 mm−1) and irrigation water productivity (11.3 kg ha−1 mm−1). From the findings of this study, it was concluded that surge and cutback flow furrow irrigation systems are promising technologies for pepper production in areas with minimal water use. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Winter management of California's rice fields to maximize waterbird habitat and minimize water use

Rice agriculture provides habitat for waterbirds in California's Sacramento Valley, a region that has lost over 90% of natural wetlands. Developed as an agronomic practice, winter-flooding of rice fields also provides habitat for waterbirds but alternatives are needed with predicted declines in water availability. During the winters of 2009–2010 and 2010–2011, we compared waterbird density and water depths of Sacramento Valley rice fields in four post-harvest management treatments that varied in the amount of water used: maintenance flooding, one-time flooding, non-flooded with boards left in water control structures, and non-flooded with boards removed from water control structures. Densities of waterbirds were higher in the flooded treatments compared to non-flooded treatments. One-time flooding provided the most suitable water depths for shorebirds and long-legged waders while maintenance flooding provided the most suitable water depths for dabbling ducks. Our results confirm that the practice of winter-flooding rice fields provides waterbird habitat. However, increased habitat value and potentially less water use could be achieved using a combination of traditional and alternative flooding practices.

The role of water auditing in achieving water conservation in the process industry

Abstract Water has traditionally been over utilised within the process industry due to its low cost. However, increasing environmental regulations, concerns around human and ecological health, and consumer expectations of high environmental performance have placed water conservation onto the agenda of the process industry. Many conceptual and mathematical techniques are available for determining appropriate water management practices to achieve this, but these are often not easily applied in complex, multi-contaminant systems such as petroleum refineries. This study investigated the use of water auditing techniques to examine water flows within a petroleum refinery, concurrently identifying practical ways for achieving water conservation. The work demonstrated that, even in a refinery with processes considered highly efficient within the industry, many opportunities existed to improve water conservation through technical, cultural and behavioural adaptations. These included the use of alternate water sources such as rainwater runoff, reuse of water within process units, and the introduction of an overarching company policy to minimise water use and effluent discharge. Water auditing was shown to be a simple yet effective method for exposing water management procedures which could be adopted for continual improvement, contributing to the emerging ideal practice of zero liquid discharge.