Mineral Supply Research Articles

The Raw Material Challenge of Creating a Green Economy

Clean technologies and infrastructure for our low-carbon, green future carry intense mineral demands. The ambition remains to recycle and reuse as much as we can; however, newly mined resources will be required in the near term despite the massive improvements in the reuse and recycling of existing end-of-use products and wastes. Growth trends suggest that mining will still play a role after 2050 since the demand for metals will increase as the developing world moves toward a per capita usage of materials comparable to that of the developed world. There are sufficient geological resources to deliver the required mineral commodities, but the need to mine must be balanced with the requirement to tackle environmental and social governance issues and to deliver sustainable development goals, ensuring that outcomes are beneficial for both the people and planet. Currently, the lead time to develop new mines following discovery is around 16 years, and this needs to be reduced. New approaches to designing and evaluating mining projects embracing social, biodiversity, and life cycle analysis aspects are pivotal. New frontiers for supply should include neglected mined wastes with recoverable components and unconventional new deposits. New processing technologies that involve less invasive, lower energy and cleaner methodologies need to be explored, and developing such methodologies will benefit from using nature-based solutions like bioprocessing for both mineral recovery and for developing sustainable landscapes post mining. Part of the new ambition would be to seek opportunities for more regulated mining areas in our own backyard, thinking particularly of old mineral districts of Europe, rather than relying on sources with potentially and less controllable, fragile, and problematic supply chains. The current debate about the potential of mining our deep ocean, as an alternative to terrestrial sources needs to be resolved and based on a broader analysis; we can then make balanced societal choices about the metal and mineral supply from the different sources that will be able to deliver the green economy while providing a net-positive deal for the planet and its people.

Critical insecurities? The European Union’s strategy for a stable supply of minerals

Abstract The green transition is creating exponential needs for critical minerals. As demand currently exceeds supply for many of these minerals, governments worldwide are devising strategies to secure stable procurements of the minerals they lack as well as to ensure that they reap the benefits of their own natural wealth. The European Union (EU) is in a difficult position in this regard due to limited domestic reserves and, thus, serves as an ideal case study to explore developments in international economic law on this issue. Internally, the EU has been reforming its financing mechanisms, developing risk management tools, and enhancing recycling. Externally, the EU has been using international trade tools to focus on access to supply rather than traditional market access issues while also developing new investment rules to open doors and protect its foreign investors in extractive industries. Both internal and external actions are being coordinated with allies through new cooperative mechanisms. However, challenges abound. These strategies will face resistance from resource-abundant economies in view of their growing demand for policy space to protect their own mineral sector. Such strategies are also inherently competitive and, hence, might lead to growing tensions among resource-seeking economies themselves.

A review of China’s resources of lithium in coal seams

Lithium gains an increasing importance in new energy vehicles and stationary energy storage, and development and utilization of lithium mines has attracted great attention around the world. In addition to the traditional lithium resources, lithium resources in coal seams have great potential in industrial application. Therefore, how to develop and utilize them is strategically significant for guaranteeing supply of lithium resources in China and promoting clean energy transformation. This paper summarizes the metallogenic ages, occurrence, enrichment factors, availability of lithium resources in coal seams in China. Conclusion are obtained as follows. i. coal-hosted lithium deposits discovered in China so far mainly occur in the Carboniferous-Permian strata of North China. They are less concentrated in smaller range in the Permian strata of Qilian-Qinling. ii. In China, coal-hosted lithium is mainly enriched in aluminum-bearing minerals. Lithium in coal seams mainly occurs in the inorganic matter, and some occurs in the organic matter. iii. Lithium enrichment in coal seams is caused by stable supply of aluminum and lithium-bearing minerals and special structural and geological factors. iv. According to China’s national standards on grades of lithium content in coal seams, the metallogenic belts of lithium in coal seams at the southern foothill of Yin Shan and in Qilian-Qinling have the potential of lithium development and extraction, covering Junger mining area in Inner Mongolia, and Pingshuo and Ningwu mining areas in Shanxi.

Europe's economic geology generates exploitable critical mineral resources enabling to reduce its geopolitical dependence- Progress beyond state-of-the-art.

Mineral raw materials were for many years the missing link in the climate debate. It is now evident that climate goals can’t be met without them. Mineral-based lithium battery and neodymium magnets value chains are not in balance between upstream-downstream efforts e.g. electric vehicles boom when energy transition mineral resources are yet not secured, Considering the long period of time (from exploration to mining takes about 15 years) needed for the mineral value chains to be fully operational, the technologies addressing the implementation plan of climate change goals might not always readily available due to lack of the mineral resources needed. However, Europe’s opportunity to become self-sufficient in mineral raw materials supply from own sources and resources, is strongly favored by its geological setting and metallogenetic evolution. Critical and strategic mineral raw materials from European primary and secondary resources produced in Europe can be taken as a guarantee for high standards in social, environmental, and economic terms. Elements and practices related to circular economy, responsible sourcing and resource efficiency addressed by the new EU industrial strategy, should be particularly considered. Major European mineral belts, such as Fennoscandian, Iberian, Carpathian-Balkan, host highly potential exploration targets challenging the likelihood for discovery of new resources and feasible mining prospects. At this stage recycling is not significant resource provider for some of the critical and strategic mineral raw materials. For the EU and the rest of the world to develop mineral supply chains, less dependent on China, strengthening key technology value chains, including processing, refining and metallurgy facilities, seems to be a dominant target.

Dietary patterns, plasma and hair trace element in Ukrainian cohort of adults during COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study

Adequate mineral intake is important for optimal immune protection against viral infections. However, there is insufficient data on the mineral status of the Ukrainian adult population during the COVID-19 pandemic. The study included people aged 35-80 years with a history of COVID-19 (study group, n=35) and those without (control group, n=26). Dietary intake was assessed using 7-day weighted food records. Trace element analysis of plasma and hair was performed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (Elvatech, Ukraine). Low levels of zinc, copper, and, to a lesser extent, iron and selenium were found in the participants' plasma and hair samples. Low hair zinc levels were found in 75.8 % of participants in the study group and 95.8% in the control group (p=0.065). Hair zinc was positively associated with plasma levels (β 0.09, CI 0.03 to 0.15, p=0.007). Participants with a COVID-19 history had higher hair zinc levels than the control group, but still below normal. The difference between groups may be explained by the higher proportion of zinc supplementation (62.9% vs 16.0%, p=0.0005). The low supply of trace elements was independent of estimated dietary intake and history of COVID-19. With increasing age of the participants, the selenium content in their hair decreased (β -0.02, CI -0.03 to -0.01, p=0.001). Current findings show the need to improve the nutrition of Ukrainians, as well as to monitor the supply of minerals for the development of optimal nutritional interventions. _________________________________________________________________________________________ Keywords: trace elements; zinc; selenium; dietary intake; age; COVID-19

The Lower Silurian Longmaxi rapid-transgressive black shale and organic matter distribution on the Upper Yangtze Platform, China

The characteristics and formation of maximum flooding (MF) black shales are important aspects in defining the geology of fine-grained reservoirs. The MF black shales are located at the bottom of the Longmaxi Formation on the Upper Yangtze Platform, corresponding to graptolite zone LM1. Seismic interpretation, X-ray diffraction entire rock analysis, total organic carbon (TOC) tests, and field emission scanning electron microscopy analysis indicate that the MF black shales have an average content of 49.3% quartz (85% clay size), 10.5% calcite, 8.4% dolomite, and 23.4% clay minerals. The quartz content increases basinward, whereas the clay mineral content decreases. The shale has developed during rapid sea level rise, with a thickness of 0.5–2.8 m that gradually thickens basinward. The TOC content, averaging 5.4%, gradually decreases basinward, with four distinct stacking patterns. The mineral composition and thickness of the Longmaxi shale are related closely to rapid transgression, biology, and volcanism during the period of sedimentation. Rapid transgression has led to a decrease in terrestrial input and shale thickness. In addition, biological activity and volcanism have caused the prevalence of microcrystalline quartz. Shales with high TOC content are related to anoxic conditions, along with low sedimentation rates and high primary productivity. The combination of an anoxic water column, weak dilution, and enhanced organic matter (OM) supply have enhanced the preservation of the OM. The four TOC stacking patterns are related to the water depth. The supply of clay minerals decreases with increasing water depth, whereas the degradation and recycling of OM decrease the TOC content. The sediment accommodation increases with increasing water depth, resulting in four TOC stacking patterns.

Analysis of world trade data with machine learning to enhance policies of mineral supply chain transparency

The increasing integration of supply chains worldwide and the establishment of resilient material flows emphasize the significance of transparency. As regulations and policies around mineral supply become more stringent, organizations are actively seeking effective tools to assess the transparency of their supply chains. Ensuring supply chain transparency plays a vital role in international trade data since it addresses the issue of inconsistent reporting by two parties involved in a transaction, sometimes referred to as bilateral asymmetries. Nevertheless, bilateral asymmetries might be utilized as a proxy to examine discrepancies in the transparency of supply chains.This paper presents a methodology to evaluate supply chain transparency using bilateral asymmetries as a proxy and provide insights into policy changes. We used a machine learning-based methodology on UN Comtrade data to study asymmetry trends in 116 million trade transactions over 30 years. The analysis demonstrates different levels of asymmetry among commodities and countries, suggesting differences in the transparency of supply chains. We exemplified the implementation of the methodology by analyzing 14 commodities associated with lithium batteries and their primary resources. The findings identify seven commodities that exhibit good (reliable) reporting practices, while two commodities (Cobalt and Lithium Primary Batteries) demonstrate bad (unreliable) reporting patterns. This indicates specific areas that should be examined and improved through policy changes. The paper presents a succinct and practical approach to measuring and strengthening supply chain transparency, giving actionable insights for policymakers and stakeholders for future actions.

Factors Affecting the Sustainable Secure Supply of Minerals

Sustainability is one of the most challenging concepts in the global mining industry. The purpose of this is to limit the harmful effects of mineral extraction on the environment and at the same time to meet the present and future needs of civilization. Therefore, we should blaze the path leading to sustainability and supply security, as well as identify the factors affecting these concepts. Thus, in this paper, the main factors are listed and defined. They are divided into two main categories: the positives and the negatives. The positives are the longevity of the minerals' mining, the index of the annual met need, the environmental-social condition of the resources, and the condition of the resources in friend countries. Also, the negative ones are the harmful chemicals released, the energy required per ton of minerals, annual CO2 emitted per ton, and recyclability. Accordingly, the factors can be used to make a strategic plan for the future of the minerals supply of a country. So, the framework developed leads the authorities to find the solutions to the sustainability of minerals' supply and increase the security of mining productions.

Role of microbial inoculants for improving productivity and systemic resistance in Abelmoschus esculentus

Okra is an economic vegetable crop and widely dispersed throughout the world's tropical, subtropical zones. It is necessary for human health and an adequate supply of total vitamins, minerals, digestive enzymes and other elements that are typically deficient in developing-country diets. The disease issues in this crop are root-decaying infections. Microbial inoculants are gaining a reputation in agronomic research. Pseudomonas species have the ability to boost plant immunity by inducing resistance against biotic and abiotic stress. Because of its substantial properties in growth and pathogen suppression during its complimentary relationship with host, Pseudomonas is the most preferred bio-inoculant. The association of Pseudomonas with crop stimulates the secretion of phytohormones, secondary metabolites and enzymes responsible for growth and pathogen control. The aim of the study is to figure out the consequences of competing inoculants on the nutritional content and quality of okra plants. So different strains of P. fluorescens (EFP161, EFP121, EFP43, EFP56, and EFP171) were inoculated (200 mL in soil) along with okra seeds in field trails. The experiment was completely randomized block design and run for 60 days of inoculation. After harvesting (60 days), their growth parameters with their biomass and stress resistance indicators like polyphenols (26.5 μg/mL), antioxidant (43.08%) and salicylic acid content (0.11 μg/mL) were estimated in Pseudomonas treated plants. Fruit quality parameters including total soluble solids (4.7%), pH, moisture content (93%), proteins (95 μg/mL) and carbohydrates (39 μg/mL) were tested in order to check their nutritional value. Okra plants showed some complications during field trails like death of the young seedlings, wet soil, rotting of small pods is a fairly common problem. These inoculants exhibited plant growth-stimulating properties by elevating their resistance power to stress and against phytopathogens responsible for plant growth reduction. The inoculation of these strains not only increased the plant growth parameters but also increased the nutritional quality of fruits. This research summarizes the impact of microbial inoculants as agricultural inputs.

Mass-Balance-Consistent Geological Stock Accounting: A New Approach toward Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources.

Global resource extraction raises concerns about environmental pressures and the security of mineral supply. Strategies to address these concerns depend on robust information on natural resource endowments, and on suitable methods to monitor and model their changes over time. However, current mineral resources and reserves reporting and accounting workflows are poorly suited for addressing mineral depletion or answering questions about the long-term sustainable supply. Our integrative review finds that the lack of a robust theoretical concept and framework for mass-balance (MB)-consistent geological stock accounting hinders systematic industry-government data integration, resource governance, and strategy development. We evaluate the existing literature on geological stock accounting, identify shortcomings of current monitoring of mine production, and outline a conceptual framework for MB-consistent system integration based on material flow analysis (MFA). Our synthesis shows that recent developments in Earth observation, geoinformation management, and sustainability reporting act as catalysts that make MB-consistent geological stock accounting increasingly feasible. We propose first steps for its implementation and anticipate that our perspective as "resource realists" will facilitate the integration of geological and anthropogenic material systems, help secure future mineral supply, and support the global sustainability transition.

Trend of critical minerals utilization for Indonesia’s Sustainable Energy Transition: A review

The European Union calculates supplies of essential minerals using an economic significance index, a supply risk index and an environmental risk index. The U.S. Geological Survey uses three indicators to assess critical mineral risks in the country: foreign ownership of mineral assets and activities, trade dependence, and indirect trade dependence. Indonesia has a history of strong mineral production, and new prospects in the critical minerals sector are developing rapidly. Positioned as a major producer of nickel, the main component of lithium-ion batteries used in electric cars. This supports technological innovation that can improve infrastructure and support sustainable development, which is in line with SDG 9. Indonesia is increasing its capacity to produce other important minerals, such as rare earth elements and cobalt, in addition to nickel production. This research uses the literature study method. The aim is to review the development of essential minerals towards sustainable development.

Exploring the Unexpected: An AI Model Uncovers Rare Earth Elements

Throughout Earth’s history, powerful geological processes have shaped the planet, formed diverse landscapes, and hidden valuable resources. Like silent architects, these processes play a crucial role in creating the world we see today. One important aspect of this geological story is the formation of critical minerals—essential elements for modern technology. These minerals are not random features but are closely tied to the larger narrative of Earth’s evolution. Scientists and engineers are exploring the connections between geological processes and the creation of critical mineral deposits to understand better how to identify, extract, and produce these deposits to help meet the demand for resources considered the building blocks of an electrified future. Used in various applications, from energy production and national defense to transportation and communication technologies (think batteries for electric vehicles, permanent magnets for wind turbine generators), critical minerals are defined as non-fuel minerals or mineral materials essential to economic or national security and have a supply chain vulnerable to disruption. The International Energy Agency (IEA), in its latest Critical Minerals Market Review, reported that the record deployment of clean energy technologies has propelled the huge demand for critical minerals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and copper. “From 2017 to 2022, the energy sector was the main factor behind a tripling in overall demand for lithium, a 70% jump in demand for cobalt, and a 40% rise in demand for nickel,” the report said. “The market for energy transition minerals reached $320 billion in 2022 and is set for continued rapid growth, moving it increasingly to center stage for the global mining industry.” In the US, critical mineral supply chains are heavily dependent on imports. In 2021, the US was 100% import-reliant for 14 of the 50 critical minerals identified by the US Geological Survey (USGS) in 2022. Additionally, according to the USGS, most of the critical minerals that are essential for meeting decarbonization goals have a net import reliance of greater than 50%. Securing Supply of Rare Earth Elements Critical minerals categorized as rare earth elements (REE) are particularly important to reaching decarbonization goals. With a name reminiscent of science fiction superheroes, the lanthanides are a series of 15 elements—plus scandium and yttrium—collectively regarded as REE. REEs range from light (LREE) to heavy (HREE). While not geologically rare, extraction and processing are complex, expensive, and environmentally hazardous. In addition to being a leading source of critical minerals gallium, germanium, and graphite, China dominates REE production and processing. According to a report by The Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, the country is home to some of the most productive and lowest-cost REE-containing geological formations, which the government has been developing since the 1970s. China holds 37% of the world’s REE reserves, as compared to the US, which held only 1% of the reserves in 2019. US critical mineral supply chains have the potential to be disrupted by adverse foreign actions, pandemics, natural disasters, and other global events. For this reason, developing domestic resources to secure supply chains and meet future critical mineral demand has become a national priority, with the signing of Executive Order No. 14017 by US President Joe Biden in February 2021.

Establishment of biochemical and hematological profiles of dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) under extensive and intensive production systems.

In Algeria, camel husbandry is undergoing a shift from a traditional extensive system to onemore intensive. Such a move in the production system of the dromedary camel should be well investigated in terms of animal welfare, health, and production status. The main objective of this study was to define and evaluate the effects of production systems on physiological responses (hematological and biochemical parameters) in Sahraoui dromedary camels to understand possible changes caused by intensive livestock farming. We analyzed the biochemical and hematological blood profiles in Sahraoui dromedary camel to evaluate and establish the differential responses to intensive conditions. Blood samples were taken from 41 healthy Sahraoui dromedary camels as part of routine veterinary analysis in southern Algeria. In total, 28 camels were from an intensive production system (IS) fed with formulated concentrate and a supply of minerals, and 13 camels were reared in a traditional extensive system (ES) maintained exclusively on grazing. Animals were of a different sex: 16 males and 25 females, and they were divided into three age categories: less than 4 years, 4 to 8, and above 8 years. All animals were healthy. This enabled us to simultaneously check the effect of age and sex on the blood profiles. Results showed that the production system affected the blood parameters of Sahraoui dromedary camel; as total protein, total cholesterol, and urea concentration were significantly higher in the plasma of animals in the intensive production system (P < 0.05). Glucose, triglycerides, and urea values differed significantly (P < 0.05) in camel plasma between age categories. Sex in our study had no effect on enzyme activities (P > 0.05). However, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in camels reared in the extensive production system (1454.13 ± 290 IU/l) than those reared in intensive production system (1313.17 ± 32 IU/l). Age and sex had a marginal effect on mineral status in dromedary camel plasma as only iron concentrations were significantly higher in male camels (P < 0.05), while Ca, P, and K concentrations were increased in the intensive system. On the other hand, our findings showed that sex, age, and production system did not affect the hematological parameters of Sahraoui dromedary (P > 0.05), except for hematocrit (PCV %) that was significantly higher in the extensive system. This work contributes to a better understanding of Sahraoui dromedary camel biology regarding the effect of different production systems on hemato-biochemical parameters.

A critical minerals perspective on the emergence of geopolitical trade blocs

In an era when critical minerals have become the cornerstone of technological advancement and economic security, the evolution of geopolitical trading blocs signifies a transformative phase in international relations. This paper critically examines the evolving landscape of global trade, characterized by the stratification of nations into competing groupings. Through an extensive literature review, the study establishes the current academic discourse on the subject, setting the stage for a deeper analysis of the actual and potential fissures in the Western liberalist rules-based international trading system (RBITS) and the emergence of a ‘competing’ trading system. The rise of the BRICS+6 nations represents a formidable counterweight in global trade power, challenging as it does the strategic rationale underpinning the RBITS. In the wake of the January 2024 BRICS expansion, the central research question is how will the intense geopolitical concentration and competition between two trade groupings impact on the governance of critical mineral supply chains? These emerging rivalries will likely shape future international trade policy and stability in critical minerals markets.

Knowledge mapping of research on securing the supply chain for critical minerals: A scientometrics and text mining approach

As clean energy technologies proliferate globally, demand for critical minerals has surged, sparking widespread concern about the security of the critical minerals supply chain. However, given the traditional scientometric methods lack of consideration of the importance of keywords and thematic analysis means cannot adaptively extract the core theme, this paper extracts the literature related to critical mineral supply chain security (CMSCS) from the Web of Science literature database system during 1995–2022. We first use scientometrics to analyze the publication volume, author collaboration, institutional collaboration, and national collaboration of CMSCS; secondly, we use cosine distance and nearest neighbor classification algorithms to analyze the dynamic development status of CMSCS, and finally, we utilize the TF-IDF algorithm and the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) text mining method to model the topics in this field. The results show that (1) global research on CMSCS is rapidly developing. China currently has the most literature in the field of CMSCS. The US, China, and the United Kingdom have the most influential research. (2) The authors collaborated to form nine core teams. The core institutions are the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and Politecnico di Milano. Most collaborative teams or institutions have strong internal collaborative links. (3) The research hotspots of CMSCS are influenced by national policies, technological development, and social consumption demand, "circular economy", "lithium battery", "recycling potential", and "recycling technology" are the directions that need to be focused on in the future. (4) Supply chain risk assessment, resilience enhancement, and recycling are important topics for future research in this field. In addition, future research on CMSCS should focus on assessing the vulnerability, resilience, and robustness of the critical mineral supply chain from the perspective of the "whole chain" to ensure the security of the global critical mineral supply chain. The research in this paper can help researchers and policy makers to quickly understand the research status and trend direction of CMSCS and provide essential references for promoting the sustainable and resilient management of global CMSCS.

Factor proportions model for Russian mineral supply-driven global energy transition: Does externality matter?

The Factor Proportions Model posits that international trade is contingent upon the relative abundance of factors of production, namely natural resources, capital, and labor. Countries endowed with mineral resources are inclined to export them to countries with higher demand but lower supply. However, geopolitical events disrupt the smooth transition of mineral-consuming economies towards sustainable renewable energy production. This study aims to investigate the interplay between Russian mineral exports and renewable energy generation, taking into account geopolitical risks, within both the global and Chinese contexts. The study covers monthly data from January 2011 to December 2021. Utilizing the cross-quantilogram approach, this study reveals a positive spillover effect of Russian mineral exports on global and Chinese renewable electricity production, across various time frames, including monthly, quarterly, bi-annual, and annual memories. Additionally, labor force's contribution plays a pivotal role in facilitating renewable energy production for both the global and Chinese contexts. Notably, externality factor, particularly geopolitical risks, exert a detrimental spillover effect on renewable energy generation for both the globe and China, although China's geopolitical risk events appear to be beneficial for its own renewable energy production in bullish and bearish states, across all memories. Russian geopolitical risks evince heterogeneous spillover effects on global renewable energy generation. To bolster the robustness of the findings obtained from the CQ approach, this study employs the partial cross-quantilogram (PCQ) approach. This research recommends the imperative of ensuring a secure supply of critical minerals and expediting the global energy revolution, while effectively mitigating geopolitical hazards, with the overarching goal of achieving a trajectory towards net-zero emissions.

Mineral import demand-driven solar energy generation in China: A threshold estimation using the counterfactual shock approach

The global shift towards clean energy sources necessitates a substantial supply of critical minerals to drive renewable energy technologies such as concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP) and solar photovoltaics (PV). This growing demand for mineral resources underscores the need to examine the import-demand function of minerals in relation to solar energy generation in China, spanning the period from 1996 to 2019. By employing both conventional autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) and dynamic ARDL (DARDL) simulation methods, our study reveals a positive and significant long-term relationship between mineral import demand and installed solar capacity. Furthermore, our analysis demonstrates that the average mineral price elasticity adheres to the Marshallian demand premise, while the substitution effect between mineral prices and oil prices contradicts this premise. Conversely, the impact of exchange rates on mineral import demand is found to be negligible. However, our findings indicate that long-term economic growth fosters mineral import demand. To ensure the robustness of our results, we conduct a dynamic ARDL simulation-based counterfactual analysis to measure the threshold level of mineral response to (±) shocks in the regressors, including oil and mineral prices, exchange rates, and GDP growth. These findings provide valuable insights for policy recommendations in China, emphasizing the importance of maximizing mineral resources to augment solar power production and achieve the global objective of a carbon-neutral landscape in the twenty-first century.

Misalignment between national resource inventories and policy actions drives unevenness in the energy transition

To make projections about the future supply of minerals for the energy transition and set climate targets, it is important to understand inventories of mineral resources as well as national extraction policies. Here, we combine data on mining properties and policies between 2020 and 2023 for 18 countries with substantial resources of energy transition minerals to understand the alignment between the resource inventories and policy actions to make these mineral resources available to market. We find the distribution and near-term production-readiness of energy transition minerals varies across countries. The results show extraction policies align with demand for energy-transition minerals more strongly for countries in the OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) compared with their non-OECD counterparts. We suggest these differences between countries could lead to global-scale delays in mitigating climate change and an uneven energy transition structured around national resource endowment, wealth, and inequality.

Analisis Geopolitik dan Geostrategi Indonesia Terhadap Kebijakan Penghentian Ekspor Timah Indonesia di Pasar Global

Indonesia is the world’s second largest producer of tin. As a world mineral supply country, Indonesia cooperates on a regional, bilateral, and multilateral scale. This brings benefits to Indonesia because there is income for the country that will be used for the domestic economy and development. However, tin exports must be increased downstream so that there is added value to the economy. The aim of this article is to examine the policy of stopping tin exports in Indonesia which has caused international reactions from various countries that need tin raw materials so that it has an impact on geopolitical turmoil for Indonesia. Qualitative data collection and literature review methods are used in this research. The findings explain the geopolitical dynamics of tin raw material exports and the strategies carried out by Indonesia through the tin export suspension policy in the global market.

Фосфатное минеральное сырьё: запасы, производство и горнорудные проекты

The paper presents the results of analyzing the reserves of phosphate mineral raw materials, their involvement in mining and processing activities both globally and in the Russian Federation. It is demonstrated that the reserves available for high-margin development have currently declined, the volumes of mining and processing of phosphate minerals have decreased, and the mining conditions have become more complicated with a corresponding deterioration in extracted ore grades. The issues with fertilizer production predefined the transformation of geopolitical conditions and manifestations of the pre-crisis food situation in the world. We have made forecast calculations of the countries' supply of phosphate mineral reserves based on the current mining and processing volumes. We reviewed the global experience of implementing large-scale mining projects to draw new phosphate mineral deposits into economic activities. It is already required to identify potentially investment-attractive phosphate deposits using various methods of their investment assessment in order to meet the needs of rural households both in the world and in the Russian Federation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop methodological approaches to investment analysis of prospective phosphate mineral reserves in the Russian Federation based on the identified specific features of phosphate mining and production in the context of pre-crisis global food situation. A methodological approach to expert scoring of phosphate mineral deposits is proposed. An investment analysis of the prospective apatite ore deposits has been made, the results of which were used as the basis for selecting the most investment-attractive ones.