Early Mineralization Research Articles

Artificial shock wave impact studies on Olivine single crystal - A Raman spectroscopic approach

After the invention of indoor tabletop shock tubes, studies on the impact of low-pressure acoustic shock waves on materials have been sufficiently conducted and found several spectacular phase transitions. However, the acoustic shock wave impact studies on minerals remain unexplored. The floodgates are to be opened by streamlining a systematic approach in bringing out a new era of spectacular findings as more and more minerals are involved in the investigation. Hence, in the present investigation, we have chosen one of the most prominent upper mantle earth minerals of α-Olivine (forsterite-Mg2SiO4) single crystal for the ex-situ shock wave recovery experiment with 2.0 MPa transient pressure. Raman spectroscopic technique has been utilized to examine the crystallographic stability of the title mineral. The observed shock-wave impact results demonstrate that the forsterite remains to be in the crystallized state maintaining the same space group of Pbnm, however, significant changes have been witnessed in the normalized intensity ratio of the characteristic doublet Raman peaks of the forsterite (asymmetry stretching SiO4 (824 cm−1)/symmetry stretching SiO4 (855 cm−1) such that the values are found to be 2.17, 2.27, 1.38, 0.51, and 2.43 against the number of shock pulses of 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively. It is to be noted that, we have found more pronounced changes in the doublet Raman peak intensity compared to the flat plate accelerator shock compression experiment on forsterite (Tielke et al., J. Geophys. Res. Planets (2022)) and the observed values are 0.8, 0.3, 0.6, 0.8 and 0.52 for 0, 21.3, 22.4, 38.9 and 41.8 GPa, respectively without undergoing any structural transitions towards the high-pressure phases. Based on the assessment of comparative results, tabletop shock-tubes can be strongly considered for mineralogical research to expand the current knowledge on the behaviors of the earth and space minerals under extreme-conditions.

Characteristics and Deep Mineralization Prediction of the Langmuri Copper–Nickel Sulfide Deposit in the Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt, China

The discovery of a Cu-Ni sulfide deposit in Langmuri of the Eastern Kunlun Orogenic Belt holds significant geological implications. This study, based on the examination of the metallogenic geological body, metallogenic structure, and metallogenic process characteristics, suggests that the deposit is a magmatic Cu-Ni sulfide deposit formed in the collision of orogenic and post-extension processes of the Late Ordovician. The early mineralization of the deposit was primarily derived from the differentiation of sulfides in the mafic–ultramafic rock (450–439 Ma) of the Late Ordovician, while the late-stage mineralization underwent significant superimposed modification by the magmatic–hydrothermal activity of crustal-contaminated biotite granite (415 Ma). In addition, this article analyzes the measurements of the geochemical studies of sediments, and the magnetic and gravity measurements carried out in the area, focusing on the geochemical and geophysical anomaly characteristics in the study area, and selects favorable exploration areas, which have been confirmed to have multiple mineral bodies. By integrating comprehensive gravity, magnetic, induced polarization, and audio-frequency magnetotelluric profile measurements, this study analyzes delineated mineralized zones and the deep extensions of surface mineral bodies to assess deep mineralization potential and identify deep ore-finding targets. It suggests that diverse and scattered mafic–ultramafic complexes in the Langmuri mining area have a large-scale distribution of ore-bearing rocks in the deep. Through the analysis and inverse of the geophysical data, a deep mineralization predictive model was established in the basic–ultrabasic rock mass. The study presents prospects for the delineation of the deep-seated mineralization in the Langmuri deposit.

Untargeted metabolomics reveals the mechanism for leaching rare earth elements from ion-adsorption rare earth ores using a composite lixiviant

Rare earth elements (REEs) are an important strategic scarce resource, and how to mine and utilise them efficiently and greenly is a difficult problem. In this study, to reduce the use of chemical reagents in the leaching process, Bacillus thuringiensis fermentation broth and magnesium acetate were used as composite lixiviants to leach REEs from ionic rare earth ores via biochemical synergy. The effectiveness of composite lixiviant for leaching REEs was studied, and the optimum leaching conditions were determined. In addition, untargeted metabolomics was used to explore metabolite differences and metabolic pathway profiles before and after leaching with the composite lixiviant. The interaction between the composite lixiviant and the rare earth minerals was also investigated by combining various characterisation tools. The results showed that the leaching rate was 96.3 % when the concentration of magnesium acetate in the composite lixiviant was 0.3 mol/L, the pH was 4, and the liquid–solid ratio was 2:1. Metabolomics analysis showed that lipids and lipid-like molecules, benzenoids, and organic acids, and derivatives contained in the fermentation broth of the complex leach play an important role in the leaching process. This study provides a new composite lixiviant for leaching ionic REEs, which can reduce the dosage of chemical reagents, provide a reference for the biochemical synergistic leaching of ionic rare earth ores, and help guide environmentally friendly and efficient leaching of ionic rare earth ores in the future.

Characterization of Co-bearing pyrite from the SEDEX Tuolugou Co(Au) deposit, northern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China

The Tuolugou sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX) Co-Au deposit is located in the eastern Kunlun metallogenic belt of the northern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. Pyrite is the prevalent Co-hosting sulfide mineral that occurs in the Tuolugou deposit. In this study, we investigated mineral characteristics of Co-bearing pyrite and effect of Co on crystal structure of the pyrite to obtain a better understanding of Co mineralization. Three pyrite generations were identified, including Co-barren pyrite (Py-1, formed during the early mineralization stage I, with Co content of 1-3844 ppm), Co-rich pyrite (Py-2, formed during the sedimentary-exhalative stage II, Co content 15–36522 ppm), and Co-rich pyrite (Py-3, formed during metamorphic stage III, with Co contents of 448–10505 ppm in Py-3A, and 1371–14904 ppm in Py-3B). As Co enters the pyrite structure, it is discovered that the octahedrons in pyrite is twisted and tilted, the lattice parameters (a0) rise, and the sulfur atom positions alter. The Co-rich Py-2 shows a similar REE and trace element distribution as those in quartz albitite, which indicates that Co mineralization is related to SEDEX genesis. Subsequent metamorphism resulted in additional Co enrichment. This detailed study of Co-bearing pyrite provides insights on the details of isomorphism Co in pyrite similar to the situation of this deposit as medium–low Co grade.

IR microscopy as an effective technique for investigation of the rare earth minerals, monazite and xenotime

IR microscopy as an effective technique for investigation of the rare earth minerals, monazite and xenotime

Rare earth elements redistribution in mine tailings soil: A comparative study of sunlit and shady slopes after in-situ leaching

The in-situ leaching of rare earth minerals results in ecological differences between sunlit and shady slopes, which may be related to differences in the distribution REEs in the associated soil matrices. Studies of REEs mine tailings in Southern China indicated higher total concentrations of REEs on sunlit slopes compared to shady ones. Specifically, the exchangeable REEs fraction (F1-REEs) was higher on the shady slopes, whereas the Fe/Mn oxides bound REEs fraction (F3-REEs) was higher on the sunlit slopes. In addition, light REE (LREE) concentrations were lower at lower elevations. With the exception of the Ce fraction which remained stable, this indicated a change in all REEs distributions, moving from F1-REEs towards the residual fraction. Hierarchical cluster and principal component analysis revealed a strong correlation between F3-REEs, organic matter bound REEs (F4-REEs), and LREEs, and a positive association of F3-REEs with sunlight exposure. Partial Least Squares Path Modeling analysis suggested that OM promoted the conversion of LREEs to F3 and F4-REEs in soil driven by sunlight exposure. Additionally, as the Feo/Fed ratio decreased, more LREEs were converted to F3. This study suggests that sunlight and elevation both play a critical role in the geochemical dynamics of REEs in in-situ tailings, advocating for environmental evaluations to be undertaken in order to accurately understand the ecological impacts of rare earth mining.

New discovery of the Early Paleozoic carbonatite in Bayan Obo (China): Insights into the giant REE accumulation

The Bayan Obo deposit in China hosts the world’s largest rare earth element (REE) resource. Age dating results for Bayan Obo range across approximately one billion years (from ∼1.4 to 0.3 Ga), with three age groups (∼1.3 Ga, ∼0.45–0.40 Ga, and 0.28–0.26 Ga). Carbonatite dated to around 1.3 Ga and granitoids to approximately 270 Ma have been identified. The Early Paleozoic vein-type mineralization is widespread in the deposit. However, magmatic activity related to the highest age peak at ∼0.4 Ga has not well been identified in the deposit, complicating the interpretation of the ore genesis. In this study, we report a zircon 232Th-208Pb age of 435.2 ± 4.6 Ma (MSWD = 1.9, N = 26) from carbonatite in Bayan Obo. The zircon morphology, characterized by bipyramidal crystal forms, low U concentrations (mostly < 1 ppm), high Th/U ratio, and carbonatite-like oxygen isotopes (5.92 ± 0.31 ‰), demonstrates that the zircon crystallized from carbonatitic magmas, thus their ages represent the timing of magmatic activity. Although remelting of the Mesoproterozoic carbonatite during Paleozoic carbonatite has been previously documented, the newly identified Early Paleozoic carbonatite derives from a different mantle source, as indicated by their more radiogenic Hf isotope compositions. This suggests that the Bayan Obo deposit experienced multiple carbonatitic activities. The Early Paleozoic carbonatitic activity may have facilitated element mobilization and mineral recrystallization, improving the exploitable levels of the world’s largest REE deposit.

Cryolite as a Reference Mineral of Rare Metal Mineralization: An Experimental Study

Abstract Phase relations and the distributions of rare earth elements (REE), Sc, Y, and Li between aluminofluoride and aluminosilicate melts in the model granite system Si–Al–Na–K–Li–F–O–H were experimentally studied at 700°C, 1 and 2 kbar, and water contents of 3 to 50 wt %. Our original and available literature experimental data on phase relations in the granite system saturated with water and fluorine and containing trace elements are compared with the mineral assemblages of rare-metal cryolite-bearing granites from the Zashikhinsky, Katugin, and Ulug-Tanzek deposits in eastern Siberia. Liquid immiscibility between granite and salt aluminofluoride melts, which occurs at high contents of fluorine and lithium in the system, is proved to facilitate the accumulation of rare elements in salt cryolite-like melts. At a temperature of 700°C and pressures of 1 and 2 kbar, aluminofluoride melt in the granite system crystallizes and forms cryolite. Fluorine-bearing minerals of trace and rare earth elements, such as pyrochlore and gagarinite, occur at these deposits in association with cryolite and lithium micas. Comparison of experimental data and natural observations provides arguments in support of the hypothesis that liquid immiscibility should play an important role in the formation of cryolite. Cryolite is thought to be able to serve as a reference mineral for rare metal-rare earth mineralization in granites with high lithium and fluorine content.

Cobalt enrichment and metallogenic mechanism of the Galinge skarn iron deposit in the Eastern Kunlun metallogenic belt, western China

Skarn iron deposits, as representative examples of Co-rich magmatic-hydrothermal deposits, are attracting increasing attention due to rising cobalt demand worldwide. However, the specific Co enrichment mechanisms and metallogenic processes in skarn deposits remain elusive. This study presents high-precision in situ U–Pb geochronological data for garnet from skarns, major and trace element analyses of sulfarsenides and sulfides, and X-ray mapping in the Galinge deposit. The Galinge skarn iron deposit formed at 237.1 ± 0.3 Ma (garnet U–Pb dating), during which time the region was in the post-collisional stage. During this period, the crust was thickened, causing delamination of the lithospheric mantle, which further led to the upwelling of asthenospheric materials and partial melting of the lower crust. As the resultant mixed magma ascended, it reacted with carbonate strata to form skarn deposits. Cobalt shows two occurrence modes in the Galinge deposit: independent cobalt minerals such as skutterudite and cobaltite, and isomorphic substitution of Co with other metals in ore minerals (arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, pyrite, magnetite, and chalcopyrite). Our results revealed that arsenopyrite is the most cobalt-enriched ore mineral in the Galinge deposit, with an average Co content of 34,077 ppm. Other minerals generally contain insignificant Co contents of less than 500 ppm, including sphalerite (471 ppm) > pyrite (194 ppm) > pyrrhotite (145 ppm) > alabandite (∼100 ppm) > magnetite (7 ppm) > chalcopyrite (2 ppm). In arsenopyrite, cobalt and nickel replace iron in accordance with the inverse correlation between the concentrations of cobalt and nickel (wt%) and that of iron. In pyrite and chalcopyrite, a portion of the isomorphic cobalt substitutes for Fe or Cu. The weak correlation between Co (ppm) and Cu or Fe (wt%) indicates that only isomorphic cobalt is carried out by substituting Fe or Cu. The negative correlation between Co + Fe and Zn or Mn suggests that cobalt and iron replace Zn or Mn in sphalerite and alabandite. No evidence of element substitution was observed in pyrrhotite. Our study highlights that during the early mineralization stage, cobalt in the magmatic-hydrothermal fluids migrated in the form of CoCl42-. Subsequently, under the influence of an increase in pH, CoCl42- reacts with H3AsO30 to form CoAs3 (skutterudite). With the continuous precipitation of arsenides and sulfarsenides, the As/S (reduced) ratio decreased, leading to the CoAs3 (skutterudite) changing to CoAsS (cobaltite).

Artificial electron snorkels reduce CH4 emissions in paddy soil: Regulation of the electron transfer pathway and microbial community ecology

Climate science has focused on reducing emissions of atmospheric CH4 from paddy soils, as CH4 has stronger infrared absorption characteristics than CO2. Like cable bacteria, artificial electron snorkels (made of solid graphite rods) have been proposed in this study to provide potential remote electron acceptors for soil anaerobic metabolism to compete with methanogenic processes. A systematic investigation was conducted on the modulation of the CH4 emission dynamics by electron snorkels at different densities, as well as the associated metabolism of C/N/Fe in paddy soil. During 124 days of operation, the electron snorkels suppressed CH4 emissions by 7–31% over ten sampling periods, and the high-density setting exhibited stronger performance. The electron snorkels accelerated the early mineralization of soil organic matter, increasing the content of dissolved organic matter by 20–236%. These organics were utilized by microorganisms, where O2, NO3−, and Fe3+ acted as electron acceptors, enhancing soil alternative respiration and producing CO2. Metagenomic and 16S rRNA gene sequencing revealed that microbial abundance and diversity were increased by 4–71% in the soil bottom layer (7 cm–8 cm depth) driven by electron snorkels. Moreover, electron snorkels potentially prevented CH4 escape by either improving soil permeability or electrically stimulating the abundance of methanotrophs (e.g., Methylocystis). The ratio of methanogenic to methane-oxidizing gene abundances was reduced by 22–66% under the electron snorkels. Our results indicate that the applied electron snorkels have significant potential in enriching the soil microbial community involved in methane cycling to mitigate CH4 emissions from paddy fields.

Meta-Ultramafic Rocks of the Maksyutov Complex, Southern Urals: High-Pressure Si-Al Metasomatism and Carbonatization at the Crust-Mantle Interface in the Subduction Zone

The eclogite-blueschists Maksyutov Complex is characterized by a complex fold-and-thrust structure that was developed during the Late Devonian collision between Baltica (East European Plate) and the Magnitogorsk Arc, that was formed during the Early Devonian intraoceanic subduction. Eclogites are the most studied rocks of the complex; their formation and exhumation are usually associated with the collisional stage of orogen development. At the same time, the origin of meta-ultramafic rocks, which together with eclogites form sheeted and lenses within metasedimentary rocks (shales and quartzites), still remains unknown. This paper presents the results of the first detailed petrological study of meta-ultramafic rocks, represented by antigorite-chlorite and magnesite-antigorite metaharzburgites, chlorite-antigorite metaorthopyroxenite. Mineral compositions and textural relationships between minerals in metaharzburgites indicate at least two stages of rock transformations. Minerals of the early mineral paragenesis (first stage) – olivine, accessory chromite and low-fluorine Ti-clinohumite – have a metamorphic genesis; ultrahigh-pressure (UHP) conditions of their formation are discussed. At the second stage, there was a partial replacement of olivine by orthopyroxene-bearing parageneses with Cr-Al antigorite and/or high-chromium chlorite. Based on the phase equilibria modeling using the Perple_X software package, it was found that the formation of antigorite-orthopyroxene paragenesis was associated with Si-Al metasomatism at: T ~ 630°С, P ~ 2 GPa, logaSiO₂~ –0.6, logaAl₂O₃~ – 2.5. It is important to note that the mineral paragenesis are highly sensitive to aSiO₂: a slight decrease in lgaSiO2 relative to the above value would lead to the growth of olivine with antigorite, and an increase would lead to the growth of orthopyroxene. The latter may explain the formation of meta-orthopyroxenites, which are widely distributed among the meta-ultramafic rocks of the Maksyutov Complex. Similar calculations performed for the range of XCO₂= 0.01–0.05 in H₂O-CO₂fluid showed replacing silicate minerals by magnesite under the established thermodynamic conditions. Carbonation and Si-Al metasomatism are specific features of high-pressure transformations of meta-ultramafic rocks, which have not been established in the associated eclogites, quartzites, and shales. Such selectivity of fluid influence on different rock types is interpreted as a result their different tectono-metamorphic evolution: meta-ultramafic rocks are fragments of the suprasubduction mantle, which were tectonically combined with the rocks of the subducting plate (eclogites and metasedimentary rocks).

Investigating the causal relationship between thyroid dysfunction diseases and osteoporosis: a two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis

The prevalence of thyroid dysfunction diseases (TDFDs) and osteoporosis (OP) is high. Previous studies have indicated a potential association between TDFDs and OP, yet the causal direction remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the potential causal relationship between TDFDs and the risk of developing OP and related fractures. We obtained pooled data from genome-wide association studies (GWASs) conducted on TDFDs and OP in European populations and identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with genome-wide significance levels associated with exposure to TDFDs as instrumental variables. Inverse variance weighted (IVW) was employed as the primary method for Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis, supplemented by MR‒Egger, weighted median, simple mode and weighted mode methods. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to evaluate the robustness of the findings. The IVW method demonstrated an increased risk of OP in patients with TDFDs, including hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism (TDFDs: OR = 1.11; 95% CI 1.09, 1.13; hypothyroidism: OR = 1.14; 95% CI 1.10, 1.17; hyperthyroidism: OR = 1.09; 95% CI 1.06, 1.12). These findings were supported by supplementary analysis, which revealed a positive correlation between TDFDs and the risk of OP. Multiple sensitivity analyses confirmed the absence of horizontal pleiotropy in the study, thus indicating the robustness of our results. The causal relationship between TDFDs and increased risk of OP implies the need for early bone mineral density (BMD) screening and proactive prevention and treatment strategies for individuals with TDFDs.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopic Analysis of Heavy Metals in Cancerous Breast Tissues Among Women in Jos, Nigeria

Breast cancer is prevalent in northern Nigerian women most especially Jos, Plateau State owing to anthropogenic activities such as solid earth mineral mining. In this study, Atomic Absorption Spectrometry was used to determine the levels of eight heavy metals (Cd, As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni and Zn) in cancerous and non-cancerous breast tissues of Jos Nigerian Women. The concentration of heavy metals ranged from 1.08 to 29.34 mg/kg, 0.29 to 10.76 mg/kg, 0.35 to 51.93 mg/kg, 5.15 to 62.93 mg/kg, 11.64 to 51.10 mg/kg, 0.42 to 83.16 mg/kg, 2.08 to 43.07 mg/kg and 1.67 to 71.53 mg/kg for Cd, As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni and Zn respectively. Using MATLAB R2016a, significant differences (t&amp;lt;sub&amp;gt;v&amp;lt;/sub&amp;gt; = 0.0041 – 0.0317) existed between the levels of all the heavy metals in cancerous and non-cancerous breast tissues except Fe. At 0.01 level of significance, positive significant correlation existed between Pb and Fe, Pb and Cu, Pb and Fe, Ni and Fe, Cr and Pb, as well as Ni and Cr (r = 0.583 – 0.998) in cancerous breast tissues. Using ANOVA, significant differences also occurred in the levels of these heavy metals in cancerous breast tissues (p = 1.910510×10&amp;lt;sup&amp;gt;-26&amp;lt;/sup&amp;gt;). The relatively high levels of the cancer-induced heavy metals (Cd, As, Cr and Pb) compared with control indicated contamination or exposure to heavy metals which could be the major cause of cancer in these female subjects.

An eco-friendly and high-yield extraction of rare earth from the leaching solution of ion adsorbed minerals

Ion-adsorbed rare earth minerals are rich in medium and heavy rare earth (RE), which are important strategic resources. In this article, a novel approach for the extraction of RE from ion adsorbed minerals was developed. Through a comprehensive assessment of their extraction and separation performance, the hydrophobic deep eutectic solvents (HDES) with a composition of trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO): dodecanol (LA): 2-thiophenoyltrifluoroacetone (HTTA) = 1:1:1 was determined as the optimal configuration. Under optimized conditions, only RE were extracted by the HDES, while Al, Ca, Mg were not extracted at all. The HDES based extraction obviated the need for diluent such as kerosene, eliminating the generation of impurity removal residues. The RE in the stripping solution could be successfully enriched by saponified lauric acid, achieving an impressive precipitation rate of 99.7%. The RE precipitate underwent further enrichment, resulting in a RE concentration of 176 g/L (REO = 210 g/L). Unlike industrial precipitants such as oxalic acid and ammonium bicarbonate, lauric acid can be effectively recycled, thereby avoiding a large amount of wastewater and carbon dioxide emissions. The obtained RE solution product exhibits high yield and purity, this study provides an eco-friendly and high-yield approach for extracting RE.

Characterization and Calibration of a Photodiode Based Pyranometer for Solar Energy Applications

&lt;p&gt;In the domain of solar science, a pyranometer assumes a pivotal position, functioning as an indispensable tool for appraising solar irradiance across the abbreviated wavelengths of the solar spectrum, spanning from 300 to 3000 nanometers. Conventional pyranometers typically employ intricate and labour intensive thermopiles. These devices rely on arrays of thermocouples interconnected either serially or in parallel and necessitate rare earth minerals for efficient operation. In this investigation, we advocate for an innovative methodology employing photodetectors, specifically photodiodes and phototransistors, to surmount the limitations linked with traditional pyranometers. Photodiodes, commonly utilized for this purpose, proffer numerous benefits, including accelerated response times, customizable spectral range selection, and cost-effectiveness. Nonetheless, they cannot entirely supplant thermopiles owing to impediments such as the generation of dark current in the absence of illumination, temperature-dependent functionalities, and saturation at elevated irradiance levels. To counteract these constraints, we have devised a pioneering design of a photodiode-based pyranometer that incorporates a data acquisition system and correction mechanism. This innovative approach furnishes a feasible resolution for autonomous solar radiation measurement, furnishing enhanced precision and dependability.&lt;/p&gt;

SOME CHARACTERISTICS AND CAUSES OF CHANGES IN THE RATE OF DISCOVERY OF NEW MINERALS SINCE 1800

ABSTRACT Construction of a discovery curve for Earth's minerals illustrates an abrupt inflection in rates of discovery and acceptance of new species that occurred in the middle of the 20th century. Prior to that time new mineral discovery is found to have accelerated at a modest pace of 0.3 species / year2. Since 1950 the rate of acceptance has accelerated at an average of 1.04 species / year2 such that the first two decades of the 21st century have been characterized by the acceptance of over 100 new minerals per year. Despite this rapid acceleration of discovery, the relative distribution among the 10 mineral classes of the Nickel-Strunz classification system of minerals identified prior to and after 1950 are nearly identical. Variation in the rates of attestation of the divisions, families, and mineral groups show distinct differences in that the maximum rates of discovery of minerals populating higher taxonomic levels occurred prior to 1950 while the attestation curve of newly recognized groups closely follows that defined by the identification of mineral species. The application of any hierarchical classification system to the mineral species is somewhat arbitrary and subject to biases or inconsistencies associated with the systematics of classification. Therefore, the discovery of new minerals is also considered within the context of the mathematically defined crystallographic space group symmetries. The space group attestation curve has a shape similar to those exhibited by the higher taxonomic levels within the Nickel-Strunz system. However, not all space groups are represented by naturally occurring minerals. Minerals discovered before and after the inflection in rates of new mineral discovery illustrate significantly different patterns of paragenesis. Nearly all of the species have been associated with one or more of 57 distinct paragenetic modes. Minerals that have long been known tend to have a higher number of paragenetic modes than those more recently discovered such that the average number of paragenetic modes is shown to have decreased linearly from 1950 to 2022. Further, the earliest known occurrence of over 80% of the currently accepted mineral species has been tabulated by the International Mineralogical Association. For species discovered prior to the inflection of 1950 a linear distribution of oldest ages is observed indicating that these minerals have earliest ages of occurrence that are uniformly distributed across the interval 0 to 4700 Ma. Conversely, approximately 70% of the species identified since 1950 have oldest known occurrences of less than 600 Ma and the age distribution of these post-1950 minerals exhibit an exponential distribution suggesting increasing efforts in new mineral discovery in tectonically active settings. Despite the differences in the pre- and post-1950 oldest age distributions, both populations exhibit similar temporal excursions in rates of new mineral creation that likely reflect substantial changes in Earth system processes responsible for new mineral formation.

Petrogenesis of the Bastielieke W-mineralized granitic pluton in the Altai orogen, NW China

Granitic magmatism of the Altai orogen is the key to understanding the tectonic evolution and metallogeny in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (COAB). In this paper, we conducted comprehensive petrological, geochronological and geochemical investigations on the Bastielieke granitic pluton in the Altai orogen. Zircon U–Pb dating shows an emplacement age of 278–270 Ma for the pluton. Granites of the Bastielieke pluton have S-type granitic affinity and have Zr + Nb + Ce + Y contents (76.6–272 ppm), A/CNK ratios > 1.1, and K2O > Na2O. The low εNd(t) (−2.8 to + 2.9) and high εHf(t) (+7.6 to + 15.9) values with Nd-Hf isotope decoupling, invariable Pb isotopes, and moderate zircon δ18OV-SMOW values suggest crustal recycling of sedimentary rocks in a syn- to post-collision setting. In addition, the pluton is spatially related to the tungsten (W) deposit and also temporally consistent with the mineralization age of 284 ± 6 Ma, indicating a genetic link between the Early Permian magmatism and mineralization in Bastielieke. Furthermore, the source rocks of the pluton which are sedimentary rocks and abundant in W, provide the material basis for the initial enrichment of W in primary magmas. Given high Rb/Sr (>3) and low K/Rb ratios (<200), we interpret that the pluton has experienced high differentiation. Our studies propose that the termination of the subduction-accretion of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and the initiation of a syn- to post-collision regime for the Altai orogen are probably at the Early Permian.

Reservoir quality of Upper Cretaceous limestones (Ahlen-Fm., Beckum Member, Münsterland Cretaceous Basin): effects of cementation and compaction on the compactable depositional volume

AbstractThe Upper Cretaceous limestones unconformably overlie Upper Carboniferous coal-bearing lithologies and are studied to assess their effect on rising mine-water levels in the Ruhr mining district. Upper Cretaceous sedimentary rocks from the Münsterland Cretaceous Basin have previously been studied regarding their sedimentary structures and fossil content. However, understanding the petrophysical and petrographic heterogeneity in regard to sedimentary properties and their effect on fluid migration pathways is yet missing. Utilizing He-pycnometry, Klinkenberg-corrected air permeabilities, p-wave velocities, transmitted and reflected light analyses, point-counting and cathodoluminescence, we assess the petrophysical, geomechanical and mineralogical properties. Porosity ranges from 1.0 to 18.7% and permeability ranges from &lt; 0.0001 to 0.2 mD, while p-wave velocity ranges between 2089 and 5843 m/s. Mechanical compaction leads to grain rearrangement, deformation of calcispheres, foraminifera and ductile clay mineral laminae. Above and below clay laminae, compaction bands of deformed calcispheres develop. Early diagenetic mineral precipitation of ferroan calcite in inter- and intragranular pores reduces porosity and permeability and influences geomechanical properties. An underestimated aspect of limestone petrography is the relationship of the original primary compactable depositional volume and the influence of compaction, deformation and cementation during early and late diagenesis on reservoir properties. The detrital dominated limestones show an originally high compactable depositional volume (CDV). Overall, reservoir qualities are poor and indicate the sealing potential of the studied lithologies. The Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) limestones thus may act as a barrier for increasing mine-water levels from dismantled, post-mining subsurface hard coal mines in the region. Graphical abstract

Peer Review Statement

Conference Title “The 6th International Conference on Earth Science, Mineral, and Energy.” Peer review statement All papers published in this volume have been reviewed through processes administered by the Editors. Reviews were conducted by expert referees to the professional and scientific standards expected of a proceedings journal published by IOP Publishing.1. Type of peer review: Single anonymous2. Conference submission management system: Morressier and Icemine Platform3. Number of submissions received: 794. Number of submissions sent for review: 575. Number of submissions accepted: 426. Acceptance Rate (Submissions Accepted / Submissions Received × 100): 53.16 %7. Average number of reviews per paper: 2.008. Total number of reviewers involved: 229. Contact person for queries:Name: Mochammad PrahastomiAffiliation: UPN Veteran YogyakartaEmail: moch.prahastomi@upnyk.ac.id

First identification of the Early Cretaceous Suolong Cu-rich porphyry in the Geji area, central Tibet: A new clue for regional porphyry Cu exploration

The Tibetan Plateau hosts the majority of porphyry Cu deposits in China. There are two large metallogenic belts, the Gangdese and Bangong-Nujiang belts, in the Lhasa Terrane, Central Tibet. The Lhasa Terrane experienced multistage magmatic activity from the Mesozoic to Cenozoic, and the subaerial volcanic areas of the western part of the terrane are regarded as favorable targets of porphyry Cu deposits. In this paper, we describe the geology of our newly identified Early Cretaceous Suolong Cu-rich porphyry in the western Lhasa Terrane and present new U–Pb ages, trace element and Hf isotopic compositions of zircon and whole-rock elemental and Sr–Nd isotopic compositions. The Suolong porphyry contains zircon grains with ages ranging from 136 to 135 Ma, εHf(t) values ranging from −1.5 ∼ +2.7 and logfO2 values ranging from −16.27 ∼ −9.92. Geochemically, the porphyry rocks are peraluminous in nature, with whole-rock εNd(t) values of −5.7 ∼ −5.4. We infer that the Suolong porphyry originated from a mixture of ∼53 % enriched lithospheric mantle and ∼47 % ancient lower crustal melt, triggered by the roll-back of the northward-subducting Neo-Tethyan Ocean. The conditions of high oxygen fugacity and water content and tectonic transition promoted the formation of the Suolong Cu-rich porphyry, but the condition of a thinned crust may have constrained the mineralization scale of the Cu deposits. This new identification of Early Cretaceous mineralization event provides important clues for identifying new potential exploration targets for porphyry Cu deposits in the western segment of the Lhasa Terrane.