Mineral Feeders Research Articles

Effects of Copper, Zinc, and Manganese Source on Mineral Status, Reproduction, Immunity, and Calf Performance in Young Beef Females over a Two-Year Period

Crossbred beef females (n = 43 nulliparous heifers, yr 1; n = 37 primiparous cows, yr 2) were used to evaluate the effects of Cu, Zn, and Mn source on mineral status, reproduction, immunity, and performance in young grazing cattle in Eastern Colorado over a 2-yr period. Pregnant nulliparous heifers were stratified by expected calving date, BW, body condition score (BCS), and liver mineral status and assigned to treatments, which included 1) organic (ORG; 50% organic and 50% inorganic Cu, Zn, and Mn) and 2) inorganic (ING; 100% inorganic CuSO4, ZnSO4, and MnSO4) trace minerals. Treatments were provided via ad libitum mineral feeders from 54 d (yr 1) and 81 d (yr 2) prior to the average calving date through 119 d (yr 1) and 135 d (yr 2) post-calving. Final liver Cu concentrations were greater (P<0.05), and final liver Mn concentrations tended to be greater (P<0.06), in females receiving ORG vs ING treatments. Estrous cyclicity tended (P<0.08) to be greater in ORG vs ING females, and there was a tendency (P<0.07) for greater pregnancy rate in ING vs ORG females after a 60-d breeding season. In pregnant heifers, concentrations of IgG antibody titers specific for porcine red blood cells (PRBC; injected i.m.) were greater (P<0.03) in ORG than in ING heifers on d 14, and total Ig titers specific for PRBC were greater (P<0.05) in ORG than in ING heifers on d 21.

Individual intake and antiparasitic efficacy of free choice mineral containing fenbendazole for grazing steers

A 95-day study (June 25–September 27, 2001) was conducted using 120 steers (311.9 ± 2.4 kg) randomly allocated to two treatments: (1) mineral containing 0.55% fenbendazole (FBZ) and (2) control, no FBZ in the mineral. Animals in the FBZ group were individually identified by an electronic tag that was read each time an animal attended the mineral feeder. The feeder was equipped with load cells that enabled individual mineral intakes to be estimated. The FBZ group was provided with non-medicated mineral during a 14-day adaptation period (July 23–August 5) and an 8-day post-medication period (September 17–24). The intake of FBZ was monitored for 14 days during each of the two treatment periods; August 6–19 and September 3–16, separated by a 14-day non-medicated period, August 20–September 2. Control animals had access to non-medicated mineral for the entire 95-day study period. All steers were grazed on alfalfa-grass pasture for the duration of the study and had free access to flocculated, filtered and chlorinated water via an automatic waterer. Fecal samples were collected from steers three times during the experiment July 23, August 27 and September 27, and analyzed for nematode eggs and Giardia sp. cysts. Seventy-five and 83% of the steers in the FBZ group visited the mineral feeder during the first and second treatment periods, respectively. Individual daily mineral and FBZ intake for the first and second treatment periods was 52.9 ± 6.6 g per day and 10.1 ± 1.2 mg/kg BW; 72.3 ± 8.4 g per day and 11.8 ± 1.4 mg/kg BW, respectively. FBZ animals were separated into three groups during each treatment period based on the recommended dose (RD) of FBZ (5 mg/kg/BW), those that received >the RD, those that received <RD but >50% RD and those that received <50% of RD. Nematode egg counts and the number of animals infected with nematodes was reduced ( p < 0.05) in all cattle that consumed FBZ as compared to control animals. In contrast to nematode eggs, numbers of Giardia cysts was not reduced ( p > 0.05) by FBZ as compared to controls in either treatment period. These results may be a reflection of Giardia re-infection occurring following treatment and highlight the need for variation in treatment regimes specifically targeted at the parasite of interest.

Effect of copper, zinc, and manganese supplementation and source on reproduction, mineral status, and performance in grazing beef cattle over a two-year period.

Crossbred, multiparous beef cows (n = 178 in Year 1; n = 148 in Year 2) were used to evaluate the effects of Cu, Zn, and Mn supplementation and source on reproduction, mineral status, and performance in grazing cattle in eastern Colorado over a 2-yr period. Cows were stratified by expected calving date, age, BW, BCS, and liver mineral status and assigned to the following treatments: 1) control (no supplemental Cu, Zn, or Mn); 2) organic (ORG; 50% organic and 50% inorganic Cu, Zn, and Mn); and 3) inorganic (ING; 100% inorganic CuSO4, ZnSO4, and MnSO4). Free-choice mineral feeders were used to provide current NRC-recommended concentrations of Cu, Zn, and Mn from 82 d (Year 1) and 81 d (Year 2) before the average calving date of the herd through 110 d (Year 1) and 135 d (Year 2) after calving. At the end of Year 1, supplemented cows had greater liver Cu (P < 0.01), Zn (P < 0.05), and Mn (P < 0.01) concentrations compared with controls, whereas liver Cu concentration was greater (P < 0.01) in ORG vs. ING cows. At the end of Year 2, supplemented cows had greater (P < 0.01) liver Cu concentrations relative to controls, whereas control cows had greater (P < 0.02) liver Mn concentration than did supplemented cows. In Year 1, pregnancy rate to AI in control cows did not differ (P = 0.47) from supplemented cows, but there was a trend (P < 0.08) for pregnancy rate to be higher for ORG than ING cows. In Year 2, supplemented cows had a higher (P < 0.02) pregnancy rate to AI than controls. In both years, when cows were inseminated after an observed estrus, supplemented cows had a higher (P < 0.04) pregnancy rate than did controls. Also, for both years, overall 60-d pregnancy rate tended (P = 0.10) to be higher for supplemented cows than for controls. In Year 1, kilograms of calf weaned per cow exposed was greater (P < 0.02) in controls than in supplemented cows, and kilograms of calf weaned per cow exposed was greater (P < 0.01) in ING than ORG treatments. However, in Year 2, kilograms of calf weaned per cow exposed was greater (P < 0.02) in controls than in supplemented cows, and tended (P = 0.09) to be greater in ORG than ING treatments. Results indicate that supplementation and source of trace minerals affected mineral status and kilograms of calf weaned per cow exposed in grazing beef cows. Supplementation also improved pregnancy rate to AI compared with cows not supplemented with Cu, Zn, or Mn for more than 1 yr. Furthermore, mineral source may influence pregnancy rate to AI.

Individual intake and antiparasitic efficacy of free choice mineral and fenbendazole in range calves

The current study was conducted to assess the feasibility of fenbendazole (FB) administration to steers in a free choice mineral supplement. Provision of free choice FB reduces the need for handling of animals as well as decreases the level of animal parasitism. Two separate trials were conducted using 400±19 kg Holstein steers ( n=14 and 17) during the months of July and August. Each steer was tagged with a unique electronic identification (EID) ear tag and randomly allocated into one of two groups. The tags worked in conjunction with a mineral feeder equipped with a load cell by registering the steer’s EID number every time the animal entered the electromagnetic field. Individual daily mineral intake and feeding times were determined over two 8-day periods of non-medicated mineral (no FB), separated by a 14-day period of medicated mineral (0.55% FB). Fecal samples were collected at the beginning and end of each trial period and were analyzed for gastrointestinal nematode eggs and Giardia cyst. There was a consistently high level of attendance for the entire experimental period, with the exception of the first six days of the adaptation period. There were three preferential times for visiting the mineral feeder, approximately 07:00, 12:00 and 18:00 h. Individual daily mineral and FB intake was 229±27.21 g/day and 2±0.14 mg/kg BW/day, respectively, for the 14-day drug delivery period. The levels of fecal nematode eggs and Giardia cysts decreased significantly (<0.01) between pre- and post-sampling, with reductions of 92% for nematode eggs and 85% for Giardia cysts. Free choice medication for the control of gastrointestinal parasites is potentially effective, provided that the appropriate drug concentration, adaptation period, intake level and duration of treatment is utilized.

Individual intake of mineral and molasses supplements by cows, heifers and calves

In two pastures, two multiplex radio frequency (RF) mineral feeders (GrowSafe Systems Ltd.) equipped with load cells were used to monitor feeder attendance and individual intake of mineral by 33 and 36 cow-calf pairs individually identified by RF transponders. A visit was defined as a return to the feeder after a 5-min absence. In exp. 1, attendance of cows and calves at the feeder and intake of mineral were monitored over 13 d. Sodium chloride was included in the mineral at 9.8% (low salt, LS) on days 1 to 6, and at 22.5% (high salt, HS) on days 7 to 13. Percentages of cows and calves that visited the feeder were similar between LS (60.9% and 21.7% respectively) and HS (62.3% and 24.6%). Number of visits (P &gt; 0.05) and daily mineral intake (P &lt; 0.1) were reduced in cows fed HS as compared with LS. Cows had more visits (P &lt; 0.001) and consumed more mineral (P &lt; 0.001) than did calves. In exp. 2, HS as is (control, C) or formulated to contain 0.468% fenbendazole (FB) was provided for 6 d to 36 and 32 cow-calf pairs in adjacent pastures. All of the cows and 93.8% of the calves attended the FB feeder; whereas only 77.8% of the cows and 33.3% of the calves attended the feeder containing C. Fenbendazole increased visits per day (P &lt; 0.05) by both cows and calves. Intakes of FB and C did not differ, but cows consumed more (P &lt; 0.001) mineral than did calves. In exp. 3, variability in intake of protein-molasses blocks by cows and heifers was examined. Intake differed by animal (P &lt; 0.01), but was similar between cows and heifers. Individual average intake was 445 g d−1 with a range of 0 to 1650 g d−1. These experiments demonstrate that universal and uniform consumption of an additive in mineral or molasses supplements by individuals in a herd cannot be assumed. Key words: Free-choice mineral, molasses, individual intake, cow, calf, fenbendazole

Feeding of complete, extruded feed to mares

Eighteen mares were used in a 92-day feeding trial to evaluate a complete, extruded feed for free choice feeding horses. The mares were assigned at random to one of three treatments as follows: Group A—Control—bahiagrass pasture+complete mineral free choice; Group B—Dry lot —Extruded feed + salt free choice; Group C—Stalled—Extruded feed + salt free choice. The pastured mares were on pasture 24 hours per day and had access to a complete mineral in a fiberglass mineral feeder. The mares fed in dry lot were fed only the extruded feed and salt, both of which were available to them 24 hours per day. The stalled mares were provided access to the extruded feed and salt for 22 hours per day. The other two hours they were turned out into a dry lot paddock for exercise. Fecal samples were collected from each of the mares on the extruded feed for estimation of feed digestibility. The pastured mares gained weight on pasture but lost girth, croup fat and condition score. Feed consumption by the dry lot fed mares peaked at three weeks at about 15.9 kg/animal/d and remained constant for the remainder of the trial. Feed consumption by the stalled mares peaked at 19.1 kg/animal/d but decreased to about 15.9 kg/animal/d during the second month and remained constant for the duration of the trial. Most of the stalled mares experienced some edema of the lower extremities which decreased during the last month of the experiment, probably due to increased activity when they were turned out. One of the stalled mares experienced multiple episodes of colic and was removed from the experiment. At the time of removal, the animal was consuming 22.7 kg of the extruded feed daily. The mares consuming the extruded diet gained more weight, heart girth, croup fat and condition score (P<0.05) than the pastured horses. The mares kept in stalls gained more weight and condition score than the mares fed in dry lot (P <0.05). Average daily mineral intake by groups A, B, and C were 80.2.4.7, and 11.4 g/d, respectively. Digestibilities by the two groups receiving the extruded feed were not different.

Soil Potassium Distribution in Grazed K‐31 Tall Fescue Pastures as Affected by Fertilization and Endophytic Fungus Infection Level

AbstractFertilizer requirements of grazed pastures may be influenced by the spatial distribution of nutrients in animal excreta. This experiment was conducted to determine the effect of two levels of fertilization and endophytic fungus (Acremonium coenophialum Morgan‐Jones et Gams) infection of Kentucky‐31 tall fescue (Festucu arundinacea Shreb) on the lateral and vertical distribution of soil K after 3 yr of grazing. Each pasture consisted of 0.7 ha of a Cecil sandy clay loam (clayey, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Hapludult,) and was grazed using the put‐and‐take method. Forage was removed only by grazing. Endophytic fungus levels were 20% (Low endophytic fungus, LE) and 52% (high endophytic fungus HE), and fertilizer rates were 134‐15‐56 kg N‐P‐K (Low fertilizer LF), and 336‐37‐139 kg N‐P‐K ha−1 yr (high fertilizer HF) in a 2 ✕ 2 factorial replicated twice in a randomized block design. Each pasture was divided into 12 zones with each zone sampled separately to a depth of 122 cm before the grazing experiment began and then annually for 3 yr. Potassium did not accumulate in the majority of the pasture area at either fertility level except near the waterer, mineral feeder, and shade. Potassium accumulation rates in this area, determined by linear regression, were 7, 23, 23, and 46 kg K yr‐1 for LELF, LEHF, HELF, and HEHF treatments, respectively. These amounts were equivalent to 18, 24, 59, and 47% of the fertilizer K applied to the 0.7 ha pastures for the LELF, LEHF, HELF, and HEHF treatments, respectively. This accumulation was a result of animal grazing and resting behavior. Much of the K accumulated below 15 cm. Transfer of K by grazing steers to camping zones and subsequent leaching increased with fertility level and endophyte infection level. This redistribution reduces effectiveness of K recycling under grazing, and increases fertilizer K requirements in non‐camping zones.

Automatic Control of a Cattle Spraying System

A solid state electronic system using digital logic has been developed to control pesticide spray timing for cattle. This system replaces a more expensive system that uses fixed-time-delay electromechanical relays for the same purpose. Spraying is controlled by the action of the cows opening and closing the lid on a mineral feeder. IM 555 timer integrated circuits (ICs) were used to generate clock signals for DM 74163 binary counters which sequenced spray operations.

Horn fly and face fly control with the Dustacator® combination mineral feeder and livestock dusting device (1988)

Dustacators (combination mineral feeders and livestock dusting devices) were used for four beef herds at Kansas State University in 1985. Loose mineral was supplied in all four Dustacator tubs, which were adjusted to low settings. Permethrin dust had no apparent effect on horn flies. Co-Ral® from two sources and Rabon® provided approximately 65% horn fly reduction during the 53-day test period. The 1986 experiment compared the effects of Dustacator mineral tub height adjustments and loose vs. block mineral. Co-Hal 1% dust from a single source was used in all treatments on two Simmental herds and two Polled Hereford herds. Excellent horn fly control was achieved and maintained except for a temporary increase in horn fly numbers in early September in all treatments. Face fly control was inadequate in all treatments in both years. Use of block mineral was related to reduced mineral consumption and self-application of more insecticide dust. High tub adjustment was related to greater mineral consumption but reduced self-application of insecticide. The degree of fly control was not correlated with amount of insecticide used either on a per-cow or per-herd basis. Simmentals consumed nearly twice as much mineral per head as Polled Herefords, but they used only 20% more insecticide. Including the cost of 1% Co- Ral dust and equipment costs amortized over 5 years, Dustacators provided acceptable horn fly control and some reduction of face fly numbers for $1.62 per cowlcalf pair, plus labor.

Methoprene Mineral Cattle Feed-Through Test for Pyrethroid Resistant Horn Fly Control, 1985

Abstract A test was initiated by feeding Morrman’s IGR Minerals (0.02% Methoprene) to 74 Angus cattle on 1 Jun. Straight mineral was placed in 2 sheltered mineral feeders which were situated near water and shade for the cattle. Prior to starting the IGR feeding test, all cattle were individually sprayed with 0.5% Vapona to knock down the existing horn fly population, which avg ca. 75 flies per cow. On 14 Jun the IGR consumption by the cattle was calculated to be 6 times more than required (according to label). Therefore, the mineral was diluted with salt to give a 67:33 mineral-salt mixture which provided the cattle with the correct amount of the IGR.

Dimilin Boluses, Guardian Ear Tags and Rabon Mineral Blocks for Cattle Fly Control

Abstract Ten percent 50g Dimilin boluses were compared to 0.463% Rabon Sweetlix mineral blocks and 7.5% Guardian ear tags for face fly and horn fly control on cattle. Five mixed-breed beef cow-calf herds and 1 herd of mixed-breed heifers were assigned to treatments as indicated in the table below. Ear tag treatments were done on 13 and 21 Jun at the rate of 2 tags/hd, and bolus treatments were administered on 21 Jun at the rate of 1 bolus/50kg of body weight/cow; calves received 0.5 bolus each. The Rabon Sweetlix mineral blocks were placed on 2 covered mineral feeders at the rate of 1 block/5 cows on 5 Jul. New Rabon blocks were added when 0.67 of the original amount was consumed. Horn fly numbers were estimated on 1 side of each of 10 cows and the total face flies found on the faces of these same cows were recorded. The mean number of flies was used for determining fly reduction.

Beef Cattle, Face Fly and Horn Fly Control with Various Insecticides, 1983

Abstract Various insecticides and application methods were evaluated for face fly and horn fly control on beef cattle. May through Sep., 1983, in Montgomery Co., Va. Herds and treatments were as follows: (1) Ectiban ear tapes applied 24 May to 16 mixed breed heifers. Two tapes per animal were attached to existing identification tags. Monitored for 16 weeks. (2) Ectiban tail tapes applied 30 May to 2 separate herds (A and B) of 21 Angus cows with calves each. Each cow and calf received one tape each, attached above the tail switch. Herd A was monitored for 16 weeks, Herd B for 14 weeks. (3) Ectiban 5.7% EC and diesel fuel (1 pt/5 gal) applied to ca. 20 mixed breed cows with calves and one bull (Herd A), and 16 Limousin cows with calves (Herb B) by means of forced-use backrubbers and facerubbers. Treatments were established 25 May and 7 Jun. for Herds A and B, respectively. Two gal of the insecticide-fuel mixture were used to recharge the rubbers monthly. Both herds were monitored for 9 weeks. (4) Ectiban 0.25% dust applied to 56 mixed breed cows with calves and 2 bulls by means of a mineral feeder type applicator established 25 May. The applicator was recharged with dust as needed. Monitored for 12 weeks. (5) Permectrin 10% ear strips applied 24 May to 19 mixed breed heifers and 10 mixed breed steers; all animals received two strips each. Monitored for 8 weeks. (6) Standard Ectrin 8% ear tags applied 24 May to 70 Angus cows with calves and Hereford bulls. Each cow received two tags per animal, and calves received one. Monitored for 17 weeks. (7) Untreated control herd of 15 mixed breed cows with calves and 1 bull, monitored for 17 weeks. All herds were maintained in separate pastures, and all were situated within ca. 2 miles of each other. Weekly face fly and horn fly estimations were made by the same person on 10 adult animals per herd. Numbers of face flies were estimated on the face and head and horn flies on one side of each animal.

Control of the Face Fly and Horn Fly on Beef Cattle, 1982

Abstract Several insecticides and application methods were evaluated Jun through Sep on 5 separate herds of beef cattle, located in Montgomery Co, Blacksburg, VA. Herd no 1 consisted of ca 20 mixed breed heifers and cows with calves, treated with a burlap backrubber and a mineral feeder type burlap facerubber, charged with 1 pt Ravap EC and 3.5 gal diesel fuel. Herd no 2 consisted of ca 25 mixed breed heifers and cows with calves, treated with a burlap backrubber and a mineral feeder equipped with reservoir type facerubber cords, charged with 1 pt Ravap EC and 3.5 gal diesel fuel. Herd no 3 consisted of 14 Angus heifers treated with 2 Ectrin 8% ear tags per animal. Herd no 4 consisted of ca 55 mixed breed cows with calves, treated with a mineral feeder type ‘Dustacator’ and later changed (wk 10) to standard dust bags. Both applicators were charged with Ectiban 0.25% dust. Herd no 5 consisted of ca 30 mixed breed cows and heifers, treated with a burlap backrubber and a mineral feeder type facerubber, charged with 1 pt Ectiban 5.7%EC and 5 gal diesel fuel. Comparative efficacy was based on an untreated control herd, consisting of ca 20 mixed breed cows with calves. All herds were within ca 2 miles of each other. Weekly fly counts were made on 10 animals per herd and are expressed as the mean number of face and horn flies per treatment. The same person performed the weekly fly counts to eliminate inaccuracy due to subjectivity.

Cafeteria Style Free-Choice Mineral Feeder for Lactating Dairy Cows

In two short trials we evaluated the cafeteria-type free-choice mineral feeder as a method of providing minerals and vitamins for lactating Holstein cows under two nutritional regimes. Trial 1 was 16 wk in which two groups of cows in mid-lactation (10 cows/group) were group-fed rations with either corn silage or alfalfa hay as the sole forage, and all supplemental minerals and vitamins were provided free choice. Trial 2 was 9 wk in which two groups of cows in late-lactation (10 cows/group) were group fed rations of corn silage and alfalfa hay. Group 1 was force-fed minerals and vitamins in the grain ration while both groups had access to free-choice minerals. Intake was variable between weeks, and cows selectively consumed some minerals. Bentonite intake remained high during both trials. Little evidence was found that dairy cows offered minerals and vitamins free choice consumed to a specific appetite or need under the two nutritional regimes.

Free Choice Feeding of Ronnel Mineral Block and Granules for Face Fly, Horn Fly, and Cattle Grub Control1

Two formulations of ronnel, 5.5% ronnel mineral granules and 5.5% ronnel mineral block, were given free choice to Charolais cows, calves, and heifers for control of face fly, Musca autumnalis DeGeer; horn fly, Haematobia irritans (L.); and cattle grub, Hypoderma (spp.). The 5.5% ronnel mineral block was also tested in conjunction with a combination face rubber and mineral feeder. The face rubber was treated with 1% ronnel in no. 2 fuel oil. Good horn fly reduction occurred in all tests, whereas face fly reduction was negligible in 2 of 3 tests. Face fly reduction was greatest on the cattle having access to the face rubber. Bioassay of composite fecal sample with face fly larvae indicated that the manure was completely unsuitable for larval development. However, inspection of individual dung piles in the field showed relatively poor control of face fly larvae. Cattle grub control was essentially 100%. The cows and calves having access to the blocks consumed more ronnel mineral than cows and calves having access to the granular form. Open heifers consumed more ronnel mineral block than the cows and calves on either formulation.