Trait Mindfulness Research Articles

Mindfulness protects relationship quality from stress: Roles of trait mindfulness and relationship mindfulness

AbstractObjectiveThis study aimed to empirically test how trait mindfulness (i.e., one's general tendency to be mindful) and relationship mindfulness (i.e., being mindful in relationships) protect couple relationships from stress and the potential extra buffer perceived partner relationship mindfulness provides.BackgroundStress has harmful effects on couple relationships, but mindfulness may mitigate such effects. Yet, no study has empirically tested the distinct but complementary roles various forms of mindfulness play in this process.MethodA sample of 249 individuals in romantic relationships completed a cross‐sectional survey that included measures of mindfulness, perceived stress, and relationship quality.Results(a) Trait mindfulness was associated with better relationship quality through reduced perceived stress. (b) Relationship mindfulness moderated the link between perceived stress and negative relationship quality and was a moderated mediator in the model. (c) Perceived partner relationship mindfulness served as an extra buffer on the link between perceived stress and negative relationship quality.ConclusionThe results extended the theoretical model of mindfulness and romantic relationships by empirically demonstrating the various roles of mindfulness in protecting relationships from stress.ImplicationsPractitioners should consider targeting both trait mindfulness and relationship mindfulness, as well as promoting perceived partner relationship mindfulness and joint participation in mindfulness‐based couple interventions.

Trait mindfulness in early pregnancy and adverse perinatal outcomes: a prospective cohort study

BackgroundMindfulness centered therapy has been shown to improve perinatal mental health outcomes. There is emerging evidence that mindfulness training (MT) can also be harnessed to improve somatic outcomes. Yet, little is known about which perinatal populations might benefit the most from mindfulness training interventions. We aimed to evaluate the association between trait mindfulness and adverse pregnancy outcomes.MethodsThis is a planned secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study of nulliparous participants recruited between May 2019 and February 2022 from a single, high volume tertiary care center. Participants completed the validated Mindfulness and Attentive Awareness Scale prior to 20 weeks gestation. Trained research staff abstracted pregnancy and delivery data. The primary outcome was unplanned cesarean delivery (CD). Secondary outcomes included gestational diabetes, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and a neonatal morbidity composite. We examined outcomes by mindfulness quartile (Q), adjusting for covariates determined a priori.ResultsOf the 281 participants with full outcome data, 47.9% experienced one or more of the adverse perinatal outcomes and the median trait mindfulness score was 4.6 (IQR 3.9–5.3). After adjusting for potential confounders, there were significantly lower rates of CD rates in those in Q2 and Q3 compared to Q4 (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] Q2 0.42, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.20 – 0.87, Q3 aOR 0.23, 95% CI 0.10–0.51). There were no differences in rates of gestational diabetes, hypertension or composite neonatal outcomes by trait mindfulness quartile.ConclusionsIn this prospective cohort of nulliparous people, those with trait mindfulness in the 2nd and 3rd quartiles had lower rates of CD. Given prior literature suggesting active MT decreases adverse outcomes, there may be a component of the active practice of mindfulness, rather than trait mindfulness levels, associated with improved outcomes.

Self-Compassion, Mindfulness, and Emotion Regulation: Understanding the Relationship Between Childhood Maltreatment and Wellbeing

ABSTRACT Mindfulness and self-compassion are both important protective processes for survivors of childhood maltreatment. This is thought to be, in part, because they promote healthy emotion regulation. However, specific patterns of associations between maltreatment, mindfulness and self-compassion, emotion regulation, and wellbeing have yet to be investigated. In particular, it is unclear whether mindfulness and self-compassion function similarly with respect to emotion regulation and wellbeing among maltreatment survivors. The present cross-sectional survey study examined the maltreatment – wellbeing link by comparing two serial mediation pathways: through trait mindfulness to emotion dysregulation and through self-compassion to emotion dysregulation. A secondary aim was to compare facets of mindfulness and self-compassion as mediators. Undergraduate (n = 748) student participants self-reported childhood maltreatment severity, self-compassion, trait mindfulness, difficulties in emotion regulation, and psychological wellbeing. Two significant serial indirect effects found both trait mindfulness and self-compassion to be mediators of the maltreatment – wellbeing link via emotion regulation capability. Such pathways were stronger mediators than mindfulness, self-compassion, or regulation alone. Few differences were found between individual facets of mindfulness and self-compassion. On college campuses, to improve wellbeing among childhood maltreatment survivors, self-compassion or mindfulness interventions may both be useful, particularly so if emotion regulation is also improved.

Resting-state BOLD temporal variability of the default mode network predicts spontaneous mind wandering, which is negatively associated with mindfulness skills

Mind wandering (MW) encompasses both a deliberate and a spontaneous disengagement of attention from the immediate external environment to unrelated internal thoughts. Importantly, MW has been suggested to have an inverse relationship with mindfulness, a state of nonjudgmental awareness of present-moment experience. Although they are, respectively, associated with increased and decreased activity in the default mode network (DMN), the specific contributions of deliberate and spontaneous MW, and their relationships with mindfulness abilities and resting-state macro networks remain to be elucidated. Therefore, resting-state MRI scans from 76 participants were analyzed with group independent component analysis to decompose brain networks into independent macro-networks and to see which of them predicted specific aspects of spontaneous and deliberate MW or mindfulness traits. Our results show that temporal variability of the resting-state DMN predicts spontaneous MW, which in turn is negatively associated with the acting with awareness facet of mindfulness. This finding shows that the DMN is not directly associated with overall mindfulness, but rather demonstrates that there exists a close relationship between DMN and MW, and furthermore, that the involvement of mindfulness abilities in this dynamic may be secondary. In sum, our study contributes to a better understanding of the neural bases of spontaneous MW and its relationship with mindfulness. These results open up the possibility of intervening on specific aspects of our cognitive abilities: for example, our data suggest that training the mindfulness facet acting with awareness would allow lessening our tendency for MW at inopportune times.

How trait mindfulness protects late adolescents from stress-induced sleep problems: the unique role of mindfulness facets and gender differences

BackgroundUnderstanding sleep problems in late adolescents caused by daily stress is essential due to their increased vulnerability to stress-related sleep issues. While previous research has demonstrated the potential protective effect of trait mindfulness, facets of mindfulness were found to have unique functions against the negative impact of stress, and the unique impact of each facet of mindfulness on the sleep problems caused by the negative impact of stress remains unclear. Thus, this longitudinal study aimed to assess the impact of stressful life events on sleep problems a year later among late adolescents and to explore the moderating effects of the five trait mindfulness facets. Gender differences have been observed in mindfulness’s protective effects, yet how gender influences each mindfulness facet remains unclear. This study also examines how gender moderates the effects of individual mindfulness facets.MethodsThe study tracked 1,926 Chinese vocational high school students (Mage = 18.49) over a year, assessing them for their sleep problems, perceived impact of stressful life events, and mindfulness facets through self-reported questionnaires. Multivariate analysis was used to investigate the moderating effects of each mindfulness facet on the relationship between stressful life events and sleep problems one year later. Then, gender differences were examined through multi-group comparison.ResultsA higher impact from stressful life events predicted more sleep problems a year later. Notably, among all five facets of mindfulness, only Observing significantly buffered the negative impact of stressful life events on sleep problems, in females but not in males, thus gender moderated the impact of Observing.ConclusionsThis study suggested that Observing uniquely protected young females from the negative impact of stressful life events on their sleep problems a year later. Since the measurement tool for the Observing facet only had 1 question tested on observing inner feelings, and other questions are all about observing bodily sensations and outer environments, this study implies that insomnia therapies focus on enhancing the ability to anchor attention in the present moment, especially towards bodily sensations and the outer environment, may be particularly effective in buffering the long-term impact of daily stressors on sleep for young females.Trial registrationNot applicable.

Mindfulness as a moderator of associations between intergroup bias and psychological health: A scoping review.

The health repercussions of intergroup bias on members of minoritized groups are massive. This scoping review examines the available peer-reviewed evidence on mindfulness as a moderator of associations between intergroup bias and psychological health indicators. Peer-reviewed studies of mindfulness moderating associations between intergroup bias and psychological health indicators through May 2024 were surveyed, with no limitations in terms of intergroup bias variety, study context, participants' characteristics, or date of publication. Sixteen articles were eligible and reviewed. Trait mindfulness moderated negative associations between intergroup bias and psychological health indicators in most studies reviewed, such that the associations are reduced or disappear at high, compared to low, levels of trait mindfulness. Important caveats of this protective role of mindfulness are discussed, such as the lack of diversity in mindfulness research and interventions, and the potentially silencing effect of mindfulness as construed in mainstream Western contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Relationship between trait mindfulness and physical activity among emerging adults: The mediating roles of exercise-related cognitive errors and trait self-control.

Exercise-related cognitive errors (ECEs) is a significant factor that can negatively influence physical activity (PA) engagement among emerging adults, whereas mindfulness interventions may be beneficial for promoting PA. Against this background, we investigated the potential association between trait mindfulness and PA levels among emerging adults and determined whether trait self-control and ECEs serve as mediators. 328 Chinese participants (61.3% female, mean age=20.65, SD=2.21) completed a series of questionnaires, including demographics, the Five Dimension Mindfulness Questionnaire short form (FFMQ-SF), the Exercise Cognitive Bias Questionnaire (E-CEQ), the Brief Self Control Scale (BSCS), and the short form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ-SF). A structural equation model was used to investigate the potential relationships between trait mindfulness and PA levels, considering trait self-control and ECEs as mediators. Trait self-control (Indirect 1; B=0.09, 95%CI: 0.04, 0.16) and ECEs (Indirect 3; B=0.02, 95%CI: 0.00, 0.04) mediates the relationship between trait mindfulness and PA levels, respectively, when considered as independent mediators. In addition, also in a dual-mediation model ECEs and trait self-control (Indirect 2; B=0.02, 95%CI [0.00, 0.06]) mediate the relationship between trait mindfulness and PA. This study provides evidence that trait self-control and ECEs are mediators of the relationship between trait mindfulness and PA levels, providing a new direction for further research aiming to reduce ECEs and improve PA levels among emerging adults.

Trait Mindfulness and Prosocial Behavior: The Moderating Role of Self-Construals and Individualism

Trait Mindfulness and Prosocial Behavior: The Moderating Role of Self-Construals and Individualism

Feasibility and acceptability of a mindfulness app-based intervention among patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma: a multinational study.

Patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC) experience emotional distress and limited supportive care access. This study assesses a mindfulness app's feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy in improving emotional symptoms, trait mindfulness, and overall quality of life for patients with mRCC on immunotherapy. This multinational study recruited patients with mRCC undergoing immunotherapy from Brazil and the United States. Participants were required to engage in mindfulness app-based activities for 20-30min daily, at least 4 days per week, over a 4-week period. Assessments were conducted at weeks 0, 2, 4, and 12 to evaluate emotional symptoms (PROMIS-Anxiety and Depression, Fear of Cancer Recurrence-7), fatigue (Brief Fatigue Inventory), trait mindfulness (Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale), and quality of life (Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-General). Self-reported data were used to assess adherence. Linear mixed-effects models were used to evaluate changes over time for the measured outcomes. Among 50 patients with mRCC, the feasibility of this intervention was demonstrated; 96% of patients were assessed at week 4, with high adherence rates reported by 75% of patients. Participants expressed positive feedback on the smartphone-based approach. Significant improvements were observed in emotional symptoms, fatigue, and quality of life scores from baseline to post-intervention (P = .001 for each), suggesting the positive impact of this intervention. Our findings provide encouraging evidence for the feasibility and acceptability of a mindfulness app-based intervention among patients with mRCC. This intervention may offer a viable and accessible means of providing psychosocial support to patients with mRCC.

The Psychology of Mindfulness for Pre-Service Teachers Preparation Program

The benefits of mindfulness in adults have been widely researched, and its positive impact on psychology and teacher performance has become a major focus in the field of education. These benefits include stress regulation and reduction, increased compassion, and improved teaching effectiveness. Many studies have highlighted the positive relationship between mindfulness traits and teaching readiness. This study specifically examines the role of prospective teachers' mindfulness traits in their readiness to teach. The theoretical model proposed by Manasia et al. (2019), which includes four key dimensions of teaching, was used to measure the teaching readiness of prospective teachers in three academic programs at the Department of Language Education at a leading state university in Malang, East Java, Indonesia. The Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) was employed to measure the mindfulness traits of students as future teachers. The study found that mindfulness traits were able to predict higher teaching readiness in participants. These findings also form the basis for a community service activity, which involves providing mindfulness psychology training during teaching preparation orientation for students as prospective teachers.

Impact of an online mindfulness-based program on wellbeing and trait mindfulness for research postgraduate students: a randomized-controlled trial

ObjectivesPursuing a research postgraduate (RPg) degree is a major life event and could be stressful. The current study aims to explore the effectiveness of an online eight-week mindfulness-based intervention on improving wellbeing and alleviating illbeing among a group of RPg students using a randomized waitlist-controlled design.MethodsA total of 88 RPg students, either studying in Hong Kong or Macau, were recruited (43 were randomized into the immediate intervention group; 67 females; mean age = 27.7; SD = 4.60). The “Finding Peace in a Frantic World” was adopted as the mindfulness-based program. Linear mixed models were applied to test the effects of the intervention on trait mindfulness, compassion, wellbeing related measures (i.e., subjective wellbeing, resilience, wellbeing literacy) and illbeing related measures (i.e., emotional and sleeping disturbances), while controlling for the effects of age and gender. The intervention group was also assessed at two-month follow-up to evaluate the sustained effects.ResultsThe results revealed that participants from the intervention group showed increased resilience (b = 0.88, p = .012), wellbeing literacy (b = 2.52, p = .04), trait mindfulness (b = 5.16, p = .006), and decreased emotional disturbances (b=-8.24, p = .015), while there were no changes in subjective wellbeing, sleeping quality, and self-compassion or compassion towards others compared to the waitlist controls. Positive effects were sustained after two months in the intervention group.ConclusionsThis study provides evidence for online mindfulness training in alleviating RPg students’ emotional disturbance and supporting their resilience and wellbeing literacy.RegistrationThe study was retrospectively registered with the ISRCTN Registry on 11/11/2022 (registration number: ISRCTN18262344).

Connectome-Based Predictive Modeling of Trait Mindfulness.

Trait mindfulness refers to one's disposition or tendency to pay attention to their experiences in the present moment, in a non-judgmental and accepting way. Trait mindfulness has been robustly associated with positive mental health outcomes, but its neural underpinnings are poorly understood. Prior resting-state fMRI studies have associated trait mindfulness with within- and between-network connectivity of the default-mode (DMN), fronto-parietal (FPN), and salience networks. However, it is unclear how generalizable the findings are, how they relate to different components of trait mindfulness, and how other networks and brain areas may be involved. To address these gaps, we conducted the largest resting-state fMRI study of trait mindfulness to-date, consisting of a pre-registered connectome-based predictive modeling analysis in 367 meditation-naïve adults across three samples collected at different sites. In the model-training dataset, we did not find connections that predicted overall trait mindfulness, but we identified neural models of two mindfulness subscales, Acting with Awareness and Non-judging. Models included both positive networks (sets of pairwise connections that positively predicted mindfulness with increasing connectivity) and negative networks, which showed the inverse relationship. The Acting with Awareness and Non-judging positive network models showed distinct network representations involving FPN and DMN, respectively. The negative network models, which overlapped significantly across subscales, involved connections across the whole brain with prominent involvement of somatomotor, visual and DMN networks. Only the negative networks generalized to predict subscale scores out-of-sample, and not across both test datasets. Predictions from both models were also negatively correlated with predictions from a well-established mind-wandering connectome model. We present preliminary neural evidence for a generalizable connectivity models of trait mindfulness based on specific affective and cognitive facets. However, the incomplete generalization of the models across all sites and scanners, limited stability of the models, as well as the substantial overlap between the models, underscores the difficulty of finding robust brain markers of mindfulness facets.

How does meditation relate to quality of life, positive lifestyle habits and carbon footprint?

There is increasing scientific interest in the potential links between meditation practice and pro-environmental behaviours. The present research investigates relationships between Vipassana meditation experience (temporal variables of meditation, five facets of trait mindfulness), positive lifestyle habits (PLH), quality of life (QoL) and per-head carbon footprint (CF) among 25 skilled meditators. Self-reported validated questionnaires were given to a group of native speakers of Sri Lanka to collect data on meditation experience, PLH, and perceived QoL. In estimating CF four domains (food and beverage consumption, electricity consumption, traveling and solid waste disposal) were considered. Correlation analyses revealed that trait mindfulness showed strong associations (r>0.4) with PLH. None of the temporal variables of meditation experience was significantly correlated with any domain of CF. Two facets of mindfulness (observing and non-reactivity to present-moment experience) demonstrated statistically strong associations (p<0.05) with perceived QoL. It was found that the PLH significantly mediates the relationship between the observing facet of trait mindfulness and CF associated with food and beverage consumption (indirect effect - 0.002, SE=0.001 95% CI [0.010, 0.417]). Further, the relationship between acting with awareness and CF associated with solid waste disposal at landfill sites was significantly mediated by the PLH (indirect effect - (-0.003), SE=0.003 95% CI [-0.012, -0.0001]). The current study will serve as a foundation for future longitudinal studies on the same subject by providing evidence for the relationships between meditation experience and PLH, perceived QoL and CF.

The impact of hierarchical plateau on civil servants' taking charge behavior: The role of work engagement and trait mindfulness.

Taking charge behavior of civil servants is important for enhancing the transformative capacity and governance efficacy of the public sector. This study is based on the conservation of resources theory and the job demands-resources model to explore the impact of hierarchical plateau on taking charge behavior of civil servants, including the mediating role of work engagement and the moderating effect of trait mindfulness. Through the analysis of a sample of 286 civil servants in Guangdong Province, China, the results show that hierarchical plateau has a negative effect on taking charge behavior of civil servants, with work engagement partially mediating the relationship between hierarchical plateau and taking charge behavior; trait mindfulness can alleviate the negative relationship between hierarchical plateau and work engagement. Furthermore, the mediating effect of work engagement is moderated by trait mindfulness, with higher levels of civil servants' trait mindfulness weakening the indirect influence of hierarchical plateau on taking charge behavior through work engagement. The findings of this study deepen the understanding of the psychological mechanism of hierarchical plateau on the taking charge behavior.

Trait Mindfulness and Anxiety Symptoms: The Role of Optimism and Hope

Trait Mindfulness and Anxiety Symptoms: The Role of Optimism and Hope

The mindful route to ownership: sequential mediating effect of meaningful work

Purpose The study aims to investigate the trait-based roots of psychological ownership (PO) and explores the work-related mechanisms through which individual traits manifest in organizationally relevant forms of PO. It identifies trait mindfulness as a distal antecedent of organization-based and job-based PO with meaningful work mediating the relationship. Design/methodology/approach The hypotheses were developed using the mindfulness-to-meaning theory and tested using a three-wave design on 220 full-time employed professionals. Findings The data was analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling 4.0 predicting trait mindfulness is positively associated with organization-based PO and job-based PO. All the hypotheses were supported except relational transparency acting as a moderator. Originality/value The results are discussed in light of the genesis of PO in the philosophy of existentialism. The source of meaning is identified as a possible new antecedent category for all forms of PO.

You are not fully present with me: How own and perceived partner mindfulness shape relationship outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to examine the intrapersonal and interpersonal associations among mindfulness, perceived partner mindfulness, and relationship outcomes in married couples. Mindfulness is a quality of mind that is likely to translate into observable behaviors; thus, individuals may perceive their spouse's tendency to be mindful. Despite this, the link between perceived partner mindfulness and marital outcomes has not yet been explored. In this study, a sample of 115 married couples were recruited to complete a survey that included measures of mindfulness, perceived partner mindfulness, and several marital outcomes (e.g., positive and negative relationship quality, positive conflict communication). A series of actor-partner interdependence models demonstrated that, when accounting for both, perceived partner mindfulness outperformed self-reported mindfulness in terms of their associations with marital outcomes. For example, female perceived trait mindfulness was linked with all relationship outcomes for both themselves and their spouses, but female self-reported trait mindfulness was only significantly associated with their own negative relationship quality and their spouse's positive conflict communication. The findings of this study suggest that perceiving one's spouse to be more mindful may be linked with positive relationship outcomes above and beyond one's own mindfulness. This study highlights the importance of accounting for perceived partner mindfulness in subsequent research that seeks to understand the role of mindfulness in romantic relationships as well as in clinical work with couples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Mindfulness acting with awareness and emotional eating among polycystic ovary syndrome women with infertility: the mediating role of depression.

Emotional eating, characterized by the tendency to increase food intake in response to negative emotional states, is often linked to poor emotion regulation. While mindfulness-based interventions have been studied for their benefits in reducing emotional eating, less is known about how inherent mindfulness traits, relate to emotional regulation particularly among individuals with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), a population known for high rates of psychological distress and disordered eating behaviors. This study investigates the associations between different facets of mindfulness, depressive symptoms, and emotional eating among individuals with PCOS and infertility who had not received any formal mindfulness intervention. A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 334 individuals. Participants completed the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form (FFMQ-SF), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) to assess depressive symptoms, and the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) to measure emotional eating. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed to examine the relationships between inherent mindfulness traits (i.e., observation, describing, acting with awareness, non-reactivity, and non-judgment), depressive symptoms, anxiety, and emotional eating. The findings indicated that the trait of acting with awareness may reduce emotional eating through its influence on depressive symptoms, while observational mindfulness was found to be associated with increased emotional eating without prior external mindfulness training. In conclusion, Mindfulness is a multidimensional construct, with its facets contributing differently to emotional regulation and eating behaviors in individuals with PCOS and infertility. Future research should explore these nuances to develop more targeted interventions.

The Mediating Role of Trait Mindfulness in Academic Stress: A Cross-Sectional Study Among Italian University Students.

Stress is a significant factor influencing the mental well-being of students, and mindfulness strategies have been associated with reduced academic stress. Nevertheless, there is a limited body of research investigating stress and trait mindfulness in a sample of Italian university students. This study aims to explore the relationship between academic stress, effort-reward imbalance, and trait mindfulness. Perceived stress, effort-reward imbalance, and trait mindfulness in 442 Italian university students (mean age = 23.37 ± 4.33) were assessed through the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Effort-Reward Imbalance - Student Questionnaire (ERI-SQ) and Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). Pearson correlation analysis showed that PSS negatively correlates with FFMQ and it positively correlates with ERI-SQ, while FFMQ negatively correlates with ERI-SQ. Furthermore, mediation analysis revealed that FFMQ partially mediates the effect of ERI-SQ on PSS. This study provides the first examination of the relationships between perceived stress, effort-reward imbalance, and trait mindfulness among Italian students. The findings suggest that trait mindfulness is associated with lower levels of perceived stress and could potentially mediate the relationship between effort-reward imbalance and stress. These insights may inform future research and interventions aimed at reducing academic stress.

The role of trait mindfulness in moderating climate distress during wildfire season

Extreme worry about climate change can lead to maladaptive climate distress, defined as avoiding negative thoughts and feelings about climate. Avoiding negative thoughts and feelings (“experiential avoidance”) is a risk factor for clinical depression and anxiety. Greater ability for mindful metacognition may lead to greater tolerance of negative feelings and thus less maladaptive climate distress. To test this hypothesis, we assessed climate distress in a community sample of adults (n = 501) from the San Francisco Bay Area, before and after the severe wildfire season in 2021. Specifically, we measured experiential avoidance of distress about climate at baseline and 6 months later after the wildfire season. At baseline, climate distress was higher in women, and among people with lower trait mindfulness, higher generalized anxiety, and more liberal political ideology. Climate distress significantly increased across the sample after the wildfire season. However, this increase occurred in individuals with low mindfulness, but not high mindfulness, at baseline. As climate disasters become more frequent and severe, the ability to face the existential threat without severe distress will be an important adaptive ability and is hypothesized to help people stay engaged in climate actions. Here, we show that mindfulness may be a useful aid in maintaining lower climate distress over time, despite wildfire exposure.