Millennium BC Research Articles

An isotopic investigation on diet and inequality: The human remains from Gannì (Sardinia, 3rd millennium BC)

The Mediterranean Copper Age has been recognized as a time of profound changes related to metal circulation, better maritime connections and intensified mobility, and in many areas economic intensification, to some degree dependent on the concept of Secondary Products Revolution. This paper presents data on osteology and stable isotopes of N, C and O from collagen and bioapatite of human remains from a small cemetery in Sardinia, Italy, dating to the 3rd mill. BC and composed of three tombs and 10 individuals; to date, this is the second assemblage of skeletal remains from the chalcolithic Monte Claro culture to have been studied according to modern standards. While the absence of faunal or vegetal baseline values prevents a quantitative assessment of the proportion of different foods in the diet, a remarkably large intra-group variation in δ15N as quantifiable by the standard deviation (=1.4‰) was recorded. Considering this is one among the greatest recorded standard deviations in δ15N in the Western Mediterranean, while using caution due to limited sample size, it is compatible with a sharp differential access to resources, especially to animal protein, and such dietary inequality can be interpreted as a sign of status distinction between two groups buried in different tombs. These results are discussed in their complex, problematic relationship to the patterns of material culture.

Enguri basin toponyms in cuneiform texts

In studying the semantic and phonetic coincidences of Abzu-Engur, we focused on the Sumerian word Laḫama, which is also related to the Svan toponyms Laḫamula and the river Enguri. 50 Laḫama of Engur, as well as Abzu-Engur is found in many Sumerian and Babylonian texts from the third millennium BC and is usually associated with the Engur, Abzu waters, or the abode of wisdom. The article presents and discusses the Sumerian cuneiform texts from III millenium BC., including the ancient Babylonian period, where the Sumerian word Lahama and the Akkadian equivalent Laḫmu are recorded. Analysis of the cuneiform texts shows that the Laḫama / Laḫmu are the guardians and inseparable beings of Engur. The Sumerian word Engur (Sum. Engur), which in Sumerian means underground river, is the abode of Enki (Akk.Ea), the god of wisdom, in all cuneiform texts, guarded by the Laḫama deities. Laḫama is also found in Sumerian texts to refer to a figure of a guardian statue standing at the gates of large temples. Such as E-KUR in Nippur and E-ninu in Girsu. They are also called “Abzu -Laḫama”. (Ancient Akkadian laḫmu, probably meaning “hairy” shaggy). Laḫmu – the guardian deity associated with Enki (Akk. Ea). The Akkadian tradition was associated with Marduk. Appeared with long hair and a beard, sometimes with 4 or 6 curls. In art he is called a naked hero. Was associated with the human-bull figure. In the Babylonian creation myth, “Enuma Eliš” Laḫmu and Laḫamu are a female and a male couple, and are mentioned among the original creatures together with Anšar-Kišar. They derive from a common root (muddy). In the myth of the Babylonian creation – Enuma Eliš, Tiamat gives birth to 11 monsters. Among them is Laḫamu – a long-haired “hero”. As it is known from Ancient Mesopotamoan iconography, glower bowl with trickling water is an attribute of Enki, the god of wisdom, which is occupied by Enki in Akkadian (XXIV-XXII BC) and New Sumerian (XXI-XX BC). ) In the iconography of the period is, who is sometimes replaced by Laḫmu. Laḫama – deities are associated with Abzu-Engur and the city of Eridu. La-ḫa-ma (Sum.). According to the interpretation of the Sumerian cuneiform signs,he appears as a noble mythical creature – a creature of gratitude, merciful essential water creature. Our paper presents the Sumerian word Laḫama phonetic study, search for different meanings of cuneiform signs, which should be interesting for the study of the Kartvelian, in particular the Svan toponym Laḫamula. The article substantiates the coincidence of the Svan toponym with Laḫamula, which is directly related to the Enguri River, and which is confirmed by the Engur- Laḫama semantic and phonetic coincidences in the cuneiform texts. The root of the Svan toponym Lahamula is based on a basic study of the Sumerian lexical units: Engur and la-ḫa-ma. In the Sumerian language, the Engur is the abode of the god of wisdom, Enki (Akk. Ea). The word Apsu’s root in Georgian is also related to the flow of water (eg the river Supsa, Psou, etc.). The study presented by us is based on a general analysis of Sumerian texts and iconography and combines chronologically with the completely ancient period (IIII mill. BC), which gives us a basis for the etymology of the Svan toponyms – Enguri and Laḫamula as a matter of Mesopotamian civilization. It is also another clear proof of the cultural relations between the Ancient Near East and the Caucasus.

Political and cultural complexity in north-west China during the Western Zhou Period (1045–771 BC): new evidence from Yaoheyuan

During the early first millennium BC, having deposed the Shang dynasty, the Western Zhou exerted power over large parts of China. Archaeologically, however, the Western Zhou are less well known than their predecessors in terms of north-west China. The site of Yaoheyuan is one of the most important recent discoveries of the Western Zhou period in north-west China. Investigations have revealed a walled urban centre, with high-status cemeteries and sacrificial pits, a palace complex, a bronze-casting foundry, pottery workshops and inscribed oracle bones. These unparalleled finds provide significant new evidence with which to examine the political and cultural landscape of north-west China and, more broadly, to reassess the relationships between centres and peripheries during the Chinese late Bronze Age.

Mineralogical and microstructural characterization of ceramics from the fifth and fourth millennium BC in the central plateau of Iran

This research presents the effects of sintering process and clay composition on the physico-mechanical properties of ceramics from the fifth and fourth millennium BC (6950 ± 280 to 5040 ± 220 TL dating). The combined multiscale mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) revealed the increase of round cryptopores and ultramicropores in a range of 0.01–0.1 μm and 0.1–5 μm respectively, closely linked to vitrified glassy connections and bonding between particles and the partial melting of phyllosilicates with different sizes of bubbles at 950 °C. Cold crushing strength (CCS) of the ceramics, containing high calcite and phyllosilicate mineral exhibited a lower strength value from 6.24 to 6.31 MPa at ∼750–800 °C due to the increase in crack porosity area with high interconnectivity and internal stresses. However, the ceramics with a well glassy network show a higher strength value of 16.5Mpa, contributing to sustainable ceramic materials with a uniform cross-section >900 °C and minimal shrinkage for conservation treatment.

Preservation and Reproduction of an Ancient Human Humerus through X-ray Microscopy and 3D Printing

The combination of X-ray Microscopy (XRM) and three-dimensional virtual reconstruction has enabled the digitization and restoration of broken artifacts. By scanning, acquiring, and virtually stitching together the 3D reconstructions of individual broken pieces, damaged relics can be visualized as if they were intact objects. These virtually reconstructed samples can then be reproduced as physical copies through 3D printing, allowing for the sharing of rare findings in museum exhibits worldwide so that printed copies can be displayed for public exposure, while the original pieces remain preserved. This paper aims to demonstrate the application of these reconstruction principles to an artificially modified human humerus belonging to the II–I millennium BC. The humerus was bent into the shape of a serpent for ritual purposes related to the ancient “Snake Cult”, which was widespread in the Persian Gulf area during the Iron Age. Following the scanning and software elaboration processes, the pieces were printed in Polylactic Acid (PLA) as a single object and made available to the public, thus giving new life to a unique piece of history.

Новая неолитическая стоянка Приозерная в Нижнем Поволжье

Introduction. The Lower Volga region attracts the attention of specialists because the ancient cultures of this region had a great influence on neighboring regions. This also applies to the Neolithic era, when the inhabitants of this territory had the oldest ceramic production and cattle breeding. A number of questions remain open, as new sources are required. One of them is the site of Priozernaya in the southern part of the Lower Volga region. Methods and materials. Planographic and stratigraphic methods are used to identify the nature of the monument. According to the results of the technical and technological analysis, the ceramics are made of silt. The results of the typological method reveal flat-bottomed vessels ornamented with receding incisions in a geometric style. Stone tools are represented by scrapers, spikes, and knives. Spears and spearheads are made of bones. According to the results of archeozoological analysis, tur, kulan, saiga, tarpan, etc. are represented. According to the results of radiocarbon analysis, dates are obtained. It is 6700–6600 years BP for animal bones and ceramics. Results. The results of the spatial analysis reveal the presence of remnants of dwelling structures. The manufacturing technology and typology of ceramics and stone tools allow us to attribute the monument to the Tentexor type of the late stage of the Neolithic of the Northern Caspian. The results of the faunal analysis confirm the presence of only wild animal species. The hypothesis about the appearance of a producing economy in this region at the late stage of the Neolithic has not been confirmed. Only the dog belongs to the domesticated animals. According to the results of radiocarbon analysis, the site functioned in the second quarter of the 6th millennium BC. The monument is a short-lived hunting camp. The pattern application techniques and the nature of ornamental compositions allow us to detect similarities with the ceramics of the Caspian culture. This suggests assuming the participation of the local Neolithic population in the genesis of the bearers of the Eneolithic tradition. Authors contribution. T.Yu. Grechkina wrote sections about planographic and stratigraphic methods. A.A. Vybornov described ceramic and stone tools. The results are written together.

The pioneers of domestic trade in Sumer in the late third millennium BC and their cuneiform archives

The Sumer was politically known in the late third millennium BC during the Third Dynasty of Ur (2113-2004 BC), considered one of the most prominent ruling dynasties of Sumerian civilization the family paid great attention to business and constantly they worked to further expand businesses of both types (foreign and domestic). Another major feature of the economy of this period was the emergence of independent entrepreneurs who worked for themselves and had the title of merchants they had inherited from their parents and they left behind archival records and documents that have become available to researchers. This study describes the business activities of three of the most prominent merchants of the time, who were the leaders of the group they recorded their business activities in their own cuneiform archives, the basis of the study according to the archives that have been read and analyzed by several researchers in the field of ancient languages in the past few years, there is no doubt that the cuneiform records of that time are considered the best source for understanding and expertise being in different areas of civilization, especially the economic aspects of the country because 90% of the texts that so far, they have been found to be related to the economy in general and trade in particular.

PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS OF THE STRUCTURE OF CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE

The structural abstract discusses the features of modern post-non-classical scientific discourse, according to which all kinds of scientific and religious knowledge are simplified mental construction of a complex objective reality. All accumulated religious knowledge is a combination of various theoretical models of divine reality, the performance of which was checked by centuries of experience of mystical connection with the Lord. According to the requirements of scientific and religious discourse on incompleteness of knowledge, all religious texts of the Bible, the Koran, the Torah, etc. are not carriers of absolutely probable knowledge. The sacred reality they describe is far more complex. The structural abstract reveals the originality of the subject and object of religious narration and the special nature of the mystical fact. The empirical basis of Christian knowledge is the books of the Old and New Testaments, which set the initial basis of Christian knowledge. The array of interpretations of sacred knowledge, accumulated over two thousand years of the Christianity development, it constitutes the main volume in the system of Christian knowledge. Christian theology provides a comprehensive understanding of Christian doctrine and its historical development. A special role is played by mystical knowledge-management-experiencing, the knowledge of God in the structure of Christian knowledge. The peculiarity of knowledgemanagement-experiencing determines that it comes directly from God. Theology can be achieved in the course of many years of practical work of an ascetic. The mystical side of knowledge-management is the experience of a direct connection with the Lord, which is difficult to convey in words. Secret knowledge-management exists only in real time in the existential reality of sacred experience. The structural abstract distinguishes two types of metaphysical knowledge – Western and Eastern metaphysics. Western metaphysics is considered to be the universal, most developed type of philosophical rational knowledge, the main goal of which is to develop a theoretical model of the fundamental reality, what is the God. It is reasonable to call Eastern metaphysics the metaphysics of the Path originating in the middle of the first millennium BC in India (Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism, etc.) and China (Taoism). Orthodoxy is the Christian version of the metaphysics of the Path, while Sufism is in Islam. Everything is subordinated to the liberation of the ascetic from worldly desires and the achievement of a mystical connection with God in Eastern metaphysics. The metaphysics of the Path includes three components – theoretical construction of the God, difficult practical actions (the Path) and the secret knowledge-management of the God, which are considered in inseparable unity. The Orthodox version of the metaphysics of the Path is one of the most developed in Eastern metaphysics.The texts of Western and Eastern metaphysics differ considerably. The works of Western metaphysicians appeal to the human mind and are predominantly speculative. The writings of Eastern metaphysicians try to reproduce the mental reality of the Path of merit of Enlightenment to a large extent. If rational knowledge of the fundamental foundations of the universe prevails in Western metaphysics, then Orthodox metaphysics is guided by the desire to enter the mystical space of divine reality.

Figurines in Context: Miniatures as Crucibles of Nile Valley Societies in the Second Millennium BC (Egypt and Nubia)

Figurines in Context: Miniatures as Crucibles of Nile Valley Societies in the Second Millennium BC (Egypt and Nubia)

URUK SEALS OF EASTERN ANATOLIA: ARCHAEOLOGICAL FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONS

The phase after the Ubaid Period in Mesopotamia is called the Uruk Period. This culture coincides with the Chalcolithic Period of Eastern Anatolia. During the Uruk Period, Mesopotamia developed agriculturally. However, due to its insufficiency in terms of natural resources such as minerals and timber, they established a trade strategy centered on Eastern Anatolia, especially in the 4th millennium BC. One of the most important evidences of this trade system is seals. Made of various materials such as stone, metal, wood, glass, bone, faience and clay, seals can be of various types including stamp, cylinder and stamp-cylinder. Seals with functions such as ornamentation, protection from evil forces, confirmation and security were unearthed at Çatalhöyük in the Neolithic Period in Anatolia. Seals from the Uruk Period were also found in centers such as Elazığ-Norşuntepe and Çınaz Höyük and Malatya-Arslantepe in the Eastern Anatolia Region. While the seals of Elazığ-Norşuntepe and Çınaz Höyük consist of stamp seals, Malatya-Arslantepe has cylinder seals as well as stamp seals. The stamp seals found at Norşuntepe and Çınaz Höyük are predominantly round stamps, but there are also square stamps. Geometric motifs and stylized animal figures were used as decoration elements. They usually have round rope holes on the back. The stamp seals from Malatya-Arslantepe are round in shape. Geometric motifs and stylized depictions of humans, snakes, rams, deer and mixed creatures are found on this type of seals. In addition to stamp seals, there are also cylinder seals at Arslantepe. This type of seals mostly depict agricultural activities. They depict people plowing fields with oxen pulling the plow. Although the seals found in the mentioned centers are similar in form, they show some differences in terms of decoration. However, it is possible to say that all the examples are influenced by the seals of the Uruk Period in terms of decoration and subject matter.

The Pisany Kamen Rock Art Site on the Angara (Marking the Tercentenary of Its Discovery by D.G. Messerschmidt)

The petroglyphs at Pisany Kamen on the right bank of the Angara, near Klimino, Kezhemsky District, Krasnoyarsk Territory, fi rst described by D.G. Messerschmidt in 1725, have been examined by many specialists. Most previous studies, however, were superfi cial, and the information they provided was unreliable and contradictory. To specify the site’s location and to study the petroglyphs in more detail, using more advanced methods, the archaeological team from Krasnoyarsk Pedagogical University visited Pisany Kamen in 1999–2000. A topographic survey was carried out, and the petroglyphs were photographed and copied. Both previously known and new petroglyphs were recorded, showing animals, anthropomorphic fi gures in masks, and a separate mask. Results were compared with those recorded by Messerschmidt. The estimated dates of the site fall within a broad interval from the Early Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age (2nd millennium BC to 1st millennium AD). The pe troglyphs are relevant to various aspects of the ideology and material culture of the ancient popula tion of the region. Their further study will hopefully disclose the semantics of many images and assess their cultural and chronological attribution, relevant to the history of several modern groups of Siberia.

The Covenants of the Patriarchs with Foreigners at Beersheba

The author of this paper seeks the original historical context as well as the oldest form, structure and concept of the biblical records of the covenants of Abraham and Isaac with the local ruler(s) as recorded in Gen 21:22–24, 25–33; 26:26–31. The patriarchs, who enjoy the status of foreign/sojourner/ resident in the land of the Philistine king, Abimelek, and their peaceful agreements are depicted in three biblical sources, which are very similar to each other in terms of structure and literary context. Those are compared with selected Hittite, Babylonian and Assyrian records of the royal covenants from the 2 millennium BC. The methodology adopted in the research allowed several important formal and substantive points of contact to be noted in the compared sources. Through this comparison, the paper confirms that Gen 21:22–24, 25 33; 26:26–31 reflects two ancient patterns of bilateral covenants between the monarch and an equal or subordinate social partner: royal grants and suzerain-vassal treaties. The paper also discusses the socio-cultural and legal spectrum of the Near Eastern royal procedures and how they were re-edited and adapted by the editors responsible for the current version of the biblical cycles about the patriarchs.

Petrographic and geochemical analyses of Late Bronze and Iron Age pottery from Arslantepe (Malatya, Turkey): insights into the local organization of the production and extra-regional networks of exchange

In this paper, we analyzed Late Bronze and Iron Age pottery assemblages from the site of Arslantepe (Malatya, eastern Turkey) by utilizing a combination of thin-section petrography and X-ray wavelength dispersive fluorescence techniques. Following an introduction to the site and an overview of the archeological and historical evidence, the analysis is presented, and the outcomes discussed in the wider framework of the Syro-Anatolian and eastern Mediterranean regions. The results show elements of both continuity and change over the second millennium and until the beginning of the first millennium BC. On a local level, the use of volcanic-based recipes for the production of painted vessels represents the most striking element of continuity. In contrast, noteworthy elements of changes relate to an increased exploitation of geological deposits south of Arslantepe and the standardization of paste recipes for cooking pots. Remarkable results also pertain to extra-regional exchanges: The Late Bronze Age Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware found at the site is imported from Cilicia, while the wares of foreign tradition from the Middle Iron Age levels are mostly locally produced.

Unveiling the Dynamics of Millet Spread into Xinjiang: New Evidence of the Timing, Pathways, and Cultural Background

Xinjiang, in Northwestern China, was a key point in the prehistoric trans-Eurasian network of exchange and played an important role in facilitating the dispersal of crops across Eurasia. Millet crops were first cultivated and used ca. 10,000 years ago in Northern China, from where they spread via different routes, leaving intriguing traces in various sites across Xinjiang. This paper presents the latest data on millet in Xinjiang. By employing a multidisciplinary approach, including radiocarbon dating, archaeobotanical evidence, and carbon isotope datasets, this study explores potential routes by which millet entered Xinjiang and traces its expansion from the third millennium BC to the 10th century AD. The research highlights the significant role of millet in shaping the ancient economies and cultures of Xinjiang and Central Asia, while also underscoring the importance of further investigation to uncover the complex pathways of its dispersal across Eurasia.

Mobile craftspeople and orientalising transculturation in seventh-century BC Iberia

During the early first millennium BC, Phoenician peoples settled the Iberian coasts instigating cultural innovations known as the orientalising; indigenous communities of the interior have long been considered as passively dependent on, or isolated from, these developments. Recent excavations at the Early Iron Age village of Cerro de San Vicente in central Spain, however, have yielded domestic contexts that prompt reconsideration of this relationship. The authors use settlement layout, architecture and locally made tablewares to identify heterarchical organisation around virilocal and bilateral kinship and hybrid practices that attest to adoption of know-how and practices from distant places. Emphasis is placed on the role of embodied craftworking skills and female mobility in transculturation processes.

The Pre-Aksumite Period: indigenous origins and development in the Horn of Africa

ABSTRACT The Pre-Aksumite Period (mid-second to late first millennia BC) witnessed the rise of complex societies in the Horn of Africa. Archaeological survey and excavations in the Gulo Makeda region of Eastern Tigrai by the Eastern Tigrai Archaeological Project (ETAP) have produced new data and insights into this critical juncture in the cultural history of the region. Based on data from Mezber and other archaeological sites, we present a new Pre-Aksumite chronology and discuss the material culture, settlement, political organisation, economy, agricultural history and regional interactions of this period. We recommend the use of the term ‘Pre-Aksumite Period’ to encompass this time when the earliest polities developed in the region. Mezber provides us with a glimpse into the lifeways of indigenous peoples inhabiting the northern Horn of Africa who encountered South Arabian visitors to the region during the early first millennium BC. Data from Mezber shift our focus from external influences to considering the culture and development of autochthonous peoples of the Ethiopian/Eritrean highlands who had an active role in negotiating cultural contacts. This perspective constitutes a missing piece of the puzzle needed to better understand the broader socio-economic, political and cultural dynamics of the Pre-Aksumite Period.

Multi-analytical characterization and provenance assessment on the mortars of Satrianum (Italy)

This work focuses on a multi-analytical characterization of mortars used for the construction of the fortified medieval settlement of Satrianum, Italy. This area is very relevant for its strategic position as it represents mainland link routes between the Ionian, the Adriatic and the Tyrrhenian seas. The area has yielded traces of anthropic frequentation since the second millennium BC and, from the 8th century BC, the first small settlements were established. Mineralogical analysis, showed that the mineralogical composition of the mortars is dominated by calcite, dolomite and quartz with lower abundances of muscovite. The most abundant major oxides are CaO, MgO, with lower amounts of SiO2. Considering the trace elements, particular attention was paid to the group of the rare earth elements (REEs), whose abundances and distribution patterns, can provide information on the provenance of the material. The rare earth elements patterns of Satrianum mortars showed very similar REEs distribution patterns to Southern Apennines carbonate lithologies.

Periphrases with Motion Verbs in Vedic Sanskrit: (between) Textual Analysis and Grammaticalization Patterns

AbstractThe Sanskrit language knows the use of iterative‐continuative periphrases which are so far mostly unexplored. The aim of this paper is to investigate the grammaticalization of the motion verbs i‐ ‘go’ and car‐ ‘move’ plus participle into auxiliary verbs, collecting data from the earliest attestations (c. 2nd millennium BC) to Late Vedic (c. 900–600 BC). I argue that in the earliest attestations there are no clear cases of periphrasis, but the motion verbs are combined with an extremely high percentage of intensive participles (with iterative Aktionsart). On the other hand, in Late Vedic i‐ ‘go’ and car‐ ‘move’ function as iterative‐continuative auxiliaries in composition with participial form. As I will show, this new periphrastic construction is one of the strategies to substitute the synthetic intensive category, which was slowly disappearing after the Early Vedic time.

“Don't Let the Boats Pass!” Neo-Elamite Grain Procurement in Times of Famine and Drought

AbstractThis article is concerned with interregional trade dynamics between Elam and Mesopotamia in the early to mid-first millennium BC. During the seventh century BC, two great famines in the Neo-Elamite kingdom, of which climatological changes were a major cause, were documented in the textual records. An era of megadrought made grain procurement from the neighboring regions essential to feed the Neo-Elamite lowland population. This article further explores the impact of the two Neo-Elamite famines and “drought of the century” on the commercial and political mechanisms in the Upper Persian Gulf region.

Historical descriptions of nystagmus and abnormal involuntary eye movements in various ancient cultures.

Original texts and expert translations from various ancient cultures covering a time span from the 2nd millennium BC to the ninth century AD were searched for historical observations of involuntary eye movements. Abnormal, spontaneous eye movements are an easily recognisable neuro-ophthalmological symptom that can be both congenital and acquired. Ocular oscillations termed 'hippos' by Hippocrates (460-370BC) and Galenos (129-216AD) are synonymous with nystagmus, a term first introduced in the eighteenth century. The original description of hippos suggests an innate onset, which retrospectively can be related to either congenital (infantile) nystagmus or continuous involuntary eye movements of the blind. Other descriptions of abnormal involuntary eye movements with different beating directions, possibly associated with vertigo, seizures or ear symptoms and their impact on patients' quality of life (e.g. oscillopsia, blurred vision) are preserved in many fragmentary ancient documents including papyrus scrolls and stone tablets from Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, Greece, Rome and the Middle East. Although the sparse original descriptions of the direction and type of eye movements may inspire daring medical interpretations, caution is required when attempting to assign them to distinct nystagmus forms according to our current clinical classification of ocular motor disorders.