River Miles Research Articles

Self-Fashioning for Survivance: Akimel O'odham Story and History in the Hispanic and Early American Periods

Self-Fashioning for Survivance:Akimel O'odham Story and History in the Hispanic and Early American Periods* Jennifer Bess (bio) The earth is spinning aroundThe earth is spinning aroundAnd my people are spinning around with the earth.The earth is spinning fasterThe earth is spinning fasterAnd my people are spinning faster with the earth.At that time when Siuuhu was singing these songs, that is a sign that some day we'll find out that the earth is turning around all the time. —Julian Hayden, Juan Smith, and William Allison Smith, "Pima Creation Myth"1 The legends I have told were told by the old Pimas many, many years ago to entertain and instruct their children. Today, these old stories are almost forgotten by the younger Pimas. I don't think they should be forgotten. They are a part of Pima tradition. They show what life was like in those old days and what bothered the people such as floods and drought and old Ho'ok's bad manners. They show what our ancestors thought was important. They help us to understand what is important today. —George Webb, A Pima Remembers 2 [End Page 725] At the height of deliberations dividing Akimel O'odham (River People, also called Pima) and Anglo-American farmers over the life-sustaining waters of the Gila River in south-central Arizona in the early twentieth century, 444 "Indians of the Pima Tribe" repeated in their testimony before the U.S. Senate a refrain dating back at least two generations: "We Pimas…have always been the white man's friend."3 Between 1848 and 1854, they had proven their friendship through the respite their grandfathers offered to 60,000 migrants crossing Arizona on their way to California.4 Providing safety from Apache assaults, forage for animals, and food and water for travelers, the eight Akimel O'odham villages stretching along 12 to 15 miles of the middle Gila River marked the junction at which four southern trails to California converged.5 As fortyniner Benjamin Butler Harris remarked in regards to this hub of activity, "So many 'Pilgrims' of different companies accumulating here at one time caused disintegration and new combinations of companies."6 They came to this oasis in the Sonoran Desert trading clothing, whiskey, and weapons for cotton blankets, corn, wheat, tobacco, pumpkins, melons, and other foodstuffs. As Cave Johnson Couts limned, due to the fact that the "Gila bottom…surpasses anything we have ever witnessed for fertility," the Akimel O'odham were able to be generous.7 "The Pima," wrote George Webb a century later in A Pima Remembers, "have always been known for their hospitality. If you came to the home of another Pima, no matter what time of day, the first thing placed before you would be some kind of food…. In those days the Pimas always had plenty."8 This era of prosperity and generosity, witnessed by Anglo-Americans and eulogized by Webb, illustrates one of many chapters in a local history characterized by adaptation, innovation, and co-creation. And as demonstrated below, the "spinning" world of the Akimel O'odham sacred stories provided them with a lens through which to interpret the past, see opportunities in the present, and build the future. The following study draws from the fields of oral narrative theory, archaeology, history, religion, and anthropology to provide necessary foundations in order to explore the importance of adaptation, innovation, and "world-building" in Akimel O'odham sacred story and history.9 Inspired by the studies of anthropologist William Roseberry and historian Colleen O'Neill, both of whom illustrate the reciprocal nature of culture and history, this essay reveals the mutually reinforcing and dynamic relationship between the philosophies articulated in the sacred stories and the lived history of their guiding messages.10 Along the two axes of [End Page 726] storytelling and history, this study seeks to bring into relief three interrelated points: the importance of sacred story and oral history as complements to written history and archaeology in understanding the past; the value of storytelling as an interpretive lens to that history; and the example that the Akimel O'odham provide of Native adaptability...

Consequences of the Clean Water Act and the Demand for Water Quality*

Since the 1972 U.S. Clean Water Act, government and industry have invested over $1 trillion to abate water pollution, or $100 per person-year. Over half of U.S. stream and river miles, however, still violate pollution standards. We use the most comprehensive set of files ever compiled on water pollution and its determinants, including 50 million pollution readings from 240,000 monitoring sites and a network model of all U.S. rivers, to study water pollution's trends, causes, and welfare consequences. We have three main findings. First, water pollution concentrations have fallen substantially. Between 1972 and 2001, for example, the share of waters safe for fishing grew by 12 percentage points. Second, the Clean Water Act's grants to municipal wastewater treatment plants, which account for $650 billion in expenditure, caused some of these declines. Through these grants, it cost around $1.5 million (2014 dollars) to make one river-mile fishable for a year. We find little displacement of municipal expenditure due to a federal grant. Third, the grants' estimated effects on housing values are smaller than the grants' costs; we carefully discuss welfare implications.

Evaluating the Effect of Dam Removals on Yellow‐Phase American Eel Abundance in a Northeastern U.S. Watershed

AbstractThe negative effects of dams and the benefits of dam removal for anadromous fish populations have been well documented. Effects of dams on catadromous Anguillidae species may be less drastic, although documentation of the response of catadromous fishes to dam removal is limited. We developed a mark–recapture study design to estimate the abundance of catadromous American Eel Anguilla rostrata within a small coastal watershed and compare abundance estimates before and after barrier removal. In the Mill River, Taunton, Massachusetts, four dams have or will be modified for passage or removed. Mark–recapture sampling and modeling methods were developed and applied in Lake Sabbatia, the source of the Mill River, over 4 years from the initiation of restoration. Rectangular eel traps had higher CPUE than double‐funnel traps used in previous studies, and a tag retention study found high retention rates by using established methods (94% overall). Abundances of yellow‐phase American Eels have increased with improved passage and recruitment to sampling gear during the study period. Dam removal could have substantial benefits to the coastwide stock of American Eels, and methods to evaluate changes in abundances are important for resource management as well as restoration ecology and project selection.

A novel geostatistical approach combining Euclidean and gradual-flow covariance models to estimate fecal coliform along the Haw and Deep rivers in North Carolina

Incorporating flow in the covariance function is important for geostatistical water quality estimation that accounts for hydrological transport. Very few studies have successfully incorporated flow due to various reasons including implementation difficulties. To address this critical issue, we introduce here the first implementation of a flow weighted covariance model that uses gradual flow, and we use this model in a novel hybrid Euclidean/Gradual-flow covariance model to estimate fecal coliform along the Haw and Deep rivers from 2006 to 2010. The hybrid Euclidean/Gradual-flow model results in a 12.4% reduction in estimation mean square error compared to the Euclidean model, indicating that this is the first study to successfully incorporate gradual flow and demonstrate an improvement in estimation accuracy over the purely Euclidean approach. Furthermore, results show that the Euclidean/Gradual-flow model is more accurate and easier to implement than the Euclidean/Pipe-flow model. Our assessment found that 96 river miles were detected as being impaired according to the Euclidean/Gradual-flow method, which is more than twice the 39 river miles found according to the Euclidean estimate. These results demonstrate that the Euclidean/Gradual-flow model substantially increase the sensitivity in detecting fecal impairment, which provide critical new information for watershed management and public health protection measures.

New river constructed wetlands: How many are enough to cleanse the Salton Sea?

The New River is considered one of the most polluted waterways in the United States. It originates 20 miles south of the Mexico-United States border and flows through agricultural valleys as well as the city of Mexicali, terminating in the Salton Sea, 67 river miles north of the border. Salton Sea has no outlet, so that the water leaves only through evaporation, leaving its carrying load of salts, nutrients, heavy metals and contaminants to increase in concentration over time.In 2001, two pilot wetlands were constructed along the banks of New River within the Imperial Valley, USA, to test the feasibility of using natural methods to remove contaminants before they could reach the sea. This paper analyzes wetlands’ data collected over time to produce a model for seasonal variations in its effectiveness, and then uses this information to estimate improvement in river water quality as a function of the number of wetlands along its banks.

The Portland Harbor Superfund Site Sustainability Project: Introduction.

This article introduces the Portland Harbor Superfund Site Sustainability Project (PHSP) special series in this issue. The Portland Harbor Superfund Site is one of the "mega-sediment sites" in the United States, comprising about 10 miles of the Lower Willamette River, running through the heart of Portland, Oregon. The primary aim of the PHSP was to conduct a comprehensive sustainability assessment, integrating environmental, economic, and social considerations of a selection of the remedial alternatives laid out by the US Environmental Protection Agency. A range of tools were developed for this project to quantitatively address environmental, economic, and social costs and benefits based upon diverse stakeholder values. In parallel, a probabilistic risk assessment was carried out to evaluate the risk assumptions at the core of the remedial investigation and feasibility study process. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2018;14:17-21. © 2017 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Distribution and Abundance of Introduced Seal Salamanders (Desmognathus monticola) in Northwest Arkansas, USA

Many reptiles and amphibians are gaining recognition as harmful invaders, highlighted by well-known examples such as the Brown Tree Snake (Boiga irregularis), Cane Toad (Rhinella marina), American Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus), and Burmese Python (Python molurus bivittatus). In 2003, an introduced population of Seal Salamanders (Desmognathus monticola) was found in Spavinaw Creek, within the Ozark Plateau of northwest Arkansas. Genetic evidence confirmed an introduction from northern Georgia. Very little is known about the status of this non-native population; thus, the objective of this study was to assess the current distribution and abundance of non-native D. monticola along Spavinaw Creek. We conducted repeated, low-intensity visual surveys along the 30 km extent of Spavinaw Creek in Arkansas and used a hierarchical Bayesian analysis to model the occupancy response of D. monticola and five native salamander species relative to river mile and habitat covariates. We also conducted a short-term clos...

Acid Rock Drainage Treatment Using Membrane Distillation: Impacts of Chemical-Free Pretreatment on Scale Formation, Pore Wetting, and Product Water Quality.

Acid rock drainage (ARD) is a metal-rich wastewater that forms upon oxidation of sulfidic minerals. Although ARD impacts >12,000 miles of rivers in the U.S. and has an estimated cleanup cost of $32-$72 billion, the low pH and high metal concentrations in ARD make rapid, high volume treatment without chemical addition difficult. This research focuses on a novel method of ARD treatment, membrane distillation (MD). In MD, heated ARD is separated from a cooled distillate by a hydrophobic, water-excluding membrane. Because water only passes through the membrane in the vapor phase, nonvolatile sulfate and heavy metals are retained in the concentrate stream. A preliminary in silico analysis using an electrolyte thermodynamic model indicated that MD of 10 different mine wastes yields product water containing no contaminants at concentrations >0.2 ppm. MD tests of synthetic ARD used a ∼34 °C temperature difference, operated at 80% recovery, and produced an initial flux of 38.4 ± 1.1 L·m-2·h-1. This flux decreased slightly after scaling by iron oxyhydroxide; however, membranes maintained >99% dissolved solids rejection. Both flux decline and membrane scale formation decreased after a chemical-free, thermal precipitation pretreatment. These results indicate that MD can purify contaminated, acidic wastewater using low-grade heat sources, such as geothermal energy, without chemical addition.

Successful Spawning of Anadromous Petromyzon marinus L. (Sea Lamprey) in a Restored Stream Channel Following Dam Removal

Abstract Petromyzon marinus (Sea Lamprey) is a large, anadromous, ectoparasitic fish native to the Northeast Atlantic Coast. Sea Lamprey nest-building activities increase stream habitat heterogeneity, benthic invertebrate diversity, and fish density. The Sea Lamprey has undergone severe declines throughout most of its native range in part due to dams that limit access to spawning habitat. Here, we documented the spawning of Sea Lamprey in the Mill River in Taunton, MA, following stream channel reconstruction. Sea Lamprey nest-construction activities altered 129 m2 and 32 m2 of total streambed area within the reconstructed channel during 2014 and 2015, respectively. The association of Sea Lamprey spawning with stream restoration has important implications to the ecology of the Mill River and demonstrates that similar projects may facilitate the recovery of Sea Lamprey populations in the Northeast.

Anthropogenic landforms and sediments from dredging and disposing sand along the Apalachicola River and its floodplain

The Apalachicola River, which begins at the confluence of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers near the Georgia-Florida State line, has multiple human impacts. Water inputs declined due to upstream irrigation and urbanization in Georgia. Sediment trapped by numerous small to large dams, including construction of Jim Woodruff Dam in 1954 near the Apalachicola-Chattahoochee-Flint (ACF) confluence has increased degradation. Shortly thereafter, the river was modified for a navigation project, with 29.6×106m3 dredged between 1957 and 2002 from the Apalachicola alone. This study investigates how historic dredging coincides with the modern morphology of the channel and how historic dredging, disposal, and other activities have modified the floodplain landforms and sediments. This analysis of the navigation impacts in the middle Apalachicola River (River Miles 40 to 65) ties spatial and temporal variations of dredging, field-derived bathymetry, historic maps, patterns of floodplain disposal of dredge spoil from LiDAR imagery, and modern point bar channel change of the Apalachicola River. Floodplain mounds of coarse material, built from out-of-bank disposal constitute >800,000m3 in the study area. Approximately 7.7×106m3 of sediment was dredged within the study reach, roughly 11% of the volume dredged remains on the floodplain. Sand bars were disposal sites thus their increased area of 263% is partly tied to this practice. Thus, the legacy of dredging affects the modern sedimentology and morphology of the floodplain and channel. Findings show that a failed navigation project could have been pre-empted with better geomorphic, geologic and hydrologic study and suggest that vegetative restoration of point bars would help in narrowing and stabilizing this dynamic system.

Consequences of the Clean Water Act and the Demand for Water Quality

Since the 1972 U.S. Clean Water Act, government and industry have invested over $1 trillion to abate water pollution, or $100 per person-year. Over half of U.S. stream and river miles, however, still violate pollution standards. We use the most comprehensive set of files ever compiled on water pollution and its determinants, including 50 million pollution readings from 170,000 monitoring sites, to study water pollution’s trends, causes, and welfare consequences. We have three main findings. First, water pollution concentrations have fallen substantially since 1972, though were declining at faster rates before then. Second, the Clean Water Act’s grants to municipal wastewater treatment plants caused some of these declines. Third, the grants’ estimated effects on housing values are generally smaller than the grants’ costs.

Down The Wild Cape Fear: A River Journey Through the Heart of North Carolina

Down The Wild Cape Fear:A River Journey Through the Heart of North Carolina Ingrid E. Luffman Philip Gerard. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, NC, 2013. 276 pp.; maps, photos, bibliog., and index. $30.00 hardcover (ISBN 978-1-4696-0207-3) Down the Wild Cape Fear takes the reader along a journey down the Cape Fear River with the author. Traveling by canoe, johnboat, skiff, and kayak over 200 miles of river, Gerard tells the story of his present-day journey, along with the history of the river over the past 400-odd years. The book is organized into five parts, loosely by geomorphic reach. The first two parts cover the author's three-day journey down the upper and middle reaches by canoe with three colleagues – a birder, a wildlife biologist, and a river guide. Their journey begins in the North Carolina Piedmont just downstream of Buckhorn Dam above the Fall Line, and ends at Raven Rock State Park. This first part is rich with descriptions of the natural world: flora and fauna, hydrology, and fluvial geomorphology. Woven within are the author's observations of anthropogenic influences on the river, which in this reach consist of fish camps of various ages and conditions, and remains of old and modern dams. Part II continues the four travelers' journey into the middle reaches, from Raven Rock State Park to Fayetteville. Amid the relative isolation of the river, Gerard notes the sometimes jarring racket of cars on bridges as the surrounding lands become more urbanized. Interspersed throughout the chronicle of the river trip are stories of people and places along the river. Some are present-day characters that live and work in the watershed, while other stories tell of the history of the river and its people. Most entertaining in this section, are stories told by Dale Ryals (Cape Fear River Adventures) of hapless boaters who failed to plan and as a result, misjudged the character of the river, distances, water depths, and conditions. Gerard reflects on the parallels between teaching and adventuring: "It's an odd fact of adventuring that all the planning you do in advance actually allows you the freedom to give in to circumstance, to let the trip unfold rather than be too firmly directed. It's the way I teach writing: Prepare and plan, then give yourself up to it." (p. 63) The lower reaches from Fayetteville to Wilmington is the subject of Part III, completed in a flat-bottomed skiff with Gerard's biologist colleague from UNC, David Webster. No longer under paddle-power, their skiff boasts a thirty horsepower [End Page 197] four-stroke engine, made necessary due to slack waters caused by downstream dams. In this reach, the travelers have descended the Fall Line just below Fayetteville through a series of dams and locks, and the river is dredged and channelized to promote the transport of goods. Descriptions of wildlife and aquatic life abound, and the reader is introduced to a perspective of the river as a complete and integrated system. Gerard writes, "What is the river? Not the water – that is gone by the end of any day, spilled profligately into the ocean. That would be like defining I-95 by its traffic, which at any given point along the route changes by the second. A river is a container of sorts, enclosing water along with all the animals, fishes, and birds that move through it and locate themselves within it for a day or a lifetime. But it's also a dynamic engine of movement, a progenitor of plant and animal life, a habitat that is always in motion, a flow of water and the air above it, a place that just won't keep still." (pp. 87-88) This reflection and others like it are a common theme throughout. The journey down the estuary, from Wilmington to Bald Head Island, is outlined in Part IV. This section has more of an environmental focus, with stories of industry, superports, cement works, any of which may be abandoned, defunct, existing, or proposed. Beginning with a history of the pitch pine industry, Gerard eloquently makes the case for viewing the...

Consequences of the Clean Water Act and the Demand for Water Quality

Since the 1972 U.S. Clean Water Act, government and industry have invested over $1 trillion to abate water pollution, or $100 per person-year. Over half of U.S. stream and river miles, however, still violate pollution standards. We use the most comprehensive set of files ever compiled on water pollution and its determinants, including 50 million pollution readings from 170,000 monitoring sites, to study water pollution’s trends, causes, and welfare consequences. We have three main findings. First, water pollution concentrations have fallen substantially since 1972, though were declining at faster rates before then. Second, the Clean Water Act’s grants to municipal wastewater treatment plants caused some of these declines. Third, the grants’ estimated effects on housing values are generally smaller than the grants’ costs.

Economic valuation of river restoration: An analysis of the valuation literature and its uses in decision-making

This paper provides an analysis of existing non-market valuations of river restoration primarily in the United States and Europe. The goals of the river restoration in terms of ecosystem services are identified, as are the valuation methods used. More than two-thirds of the 38 river restorations reviewed sought to restore and protect fish populations, including in many cases threatened or endangered species. River restorations were also frequently undertaken to improve wildlife habitat, and water quality for boating. In terms of the use of non-market valuations in decision making, six of 38 restorations reviewed involved benefit-cost analyses or environmental assessments or equivalent decision documents. While both revealed preference and stated preference methods were used for valuing river restorations, the majority of restoration valuations (27 out of 38, about 70%) utilized stated preference methods such as the contingent valuation method (CVM) and choice experiments (CE). Annual willingness-to-pay per household estimated from the stated preference methods appear logically and positively related to the miles of river restored demonstrating weak scope.

Revamping Pennsylvania's Water Law System

As a relatively “wet” state, most people think of Pennsylvania as having a bountiful water supply with over 86,000 miles of streams and rivers, an abundance of groundwater, and various economic sectors generally avoiding the water shortage difficulties of the western U.S. Think again. Based on predictions from various reports, notably the Pennsylvania Climate Impacts Assessment, Pennsylvania can expect warmer temperatures year-round, increased frequency of flood events, more rain than snow in winter, prolonged summer drought, and impacts to coldwater fisheries. Establishing minimum instream flows for Commonwealth waters offers a stepping stone for adapting to predicted changes.

Bayesian Maximum Entropy space/time estimation of surface water chloride in Maryland using river distances

Widespread contamination of surface water chloride is an emerging environmental concern. Consequently accurate and cost-effective methods are needed to estimate chloride along all river miles of potentially contaminated watersheds. Here we introduce a Bayesian Maximum Entropy (BME) space/time geostatistical estimation framework that uses river distances, and we compare it with Euclidean BME to estimate surface water chloride from 2005 to 2014 in the Gunpowder-Patapsco, Severn, and Patuxent subbasins in Maryland. River BME improves the cross-validation R2 by 23.67% over Euclidean BME, and river BME maps are significantly different than Euclidean BME maps, indicating that it is important to use river BME maps to assess water quality impairment. The river BME maps of chloride concentration show wide contamination throughout Baltimore and Columbia-Ellicott cities, the disappearance of a clean buffer separating these two large urban areas, and the emergence of multiple localized pockets of contamination in surrounding areas. The number of impaired river miles increased by 0.55% per year in 2005–2009 and by 1.23% per year in 2011–2014, corresponding to a marked acceleration of the rate of impairment. Our results support the need for control measures and increased monitoring of unassessed river miles.

An Ultrasensitive (Parts-Per-Quadrillion) and SPE-Free Method for the Quantitative Analysis of Estrogens in Surface Water.

An analytical method is presented here that is sensitive to the parts-per-quadrillion (pg/L) for estrogens in surface water. The estrogens included for study were estrone, 17β-estradiol, estriol, 17α-ethinylestradiol, and equilin. The method consisted of the small-scale liquid-liquid extraction of surface water followed by derivation with dansyl chloride. Analyte separation and detection were performed by high-pressure liquid-chromatography and tandem mass-spectrometry. A large volume (100 μL) of the sample was injected on-column to increase the analyte mass sent to the detector. The detection limits of the method were 0.045 ng/L for estrone, 0.086 ng/L for 17β-estradiol, 0.030 ng/L for estriol, 0.049 ng/L for 17α-ethinylestradiol, and 0.13 ng/L for equilin. The whole-method accuracy ranged from 93 ± 5.8% to 105 ± 4.5% for all the analytes at two different spike levels. Similarly, the precision of the method was less than 8.0% relative standard deviation. The final method was used to analyze a series of samples from the Mississippi River spanning 51 river miles. Estrone was detected in all of the samples and 17β-estradiol was detected in one. Concentrations of estrone ranged from between the detection and quantification limits up to 0.63 ng/L. Increases in the concentration of estrone could be observed downstream from potential sources including a drinking water treatment plant. 17β-estradiol was detected below its quantitation limit in a sample taken downstream from a wastewater treatment plant.

Impact of the biological control agent Tetramesa romana (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) on Arundo donax (Poaceae: Arundinoideae) along the Rio Grande River in Texas

ABSTRACTFive years post-release of the arundo gall wasp, Tetramesa romana, into the riparian habitats of the lower Rio Grande River, changes in the health of the invasive weed, Arundo donax, or giant reed, have been documented. These changes in plant attributes are fairly consistent along the study area of 558 river miles between Del Rio and Brownsville, TX, and support the hypothesis that the arundo wasp has had a significant impact as a biological control agent. Plant attributes were measured prior to release in 10 quadrats at each of 10 field sites in 2007, and measured again at the same undisturbed sites, 5 years after the release of T. romana, in 2014. Above ground biomass of A. donax decreased on average by 22% across the 10 sites. This decline in biomass was negatively correlated to increased total numbers of T. romana exit holes in main and lateral shoots per site in 2014 compared to 2007. Changes in biomass, live shoot density and shoot lengths, especially the positive effect of galling on main and lateral shoot mortality, appear to be leading to a consistent decline of A. donax. Economically, this reduction in A. donax biomass is estimated to be saving 4.4 million dollars per year in agricultural water. Additional impacts are expected as populations of the wasp increase and as other biological control agents such as the arundo scale, Rhizaspidiotus donacis, become more widespread.

Architectural design studio on sustainable tourism alternatives in the San Antonio Missions Historic District

Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world. San Antonio is one of the Texas’ top tourist cities and a major tourism destination nationally. The city has a rich and unique historic urban landscape characterized by its river with its famous “Riverwalk,” historic neighborhoods, and major landmarks such as San Antonio Franciscan Missions which are on the U.S. “tentative list” as possible UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Local government has completed a multiyear project to restore and enhance 13 miles of the San Antonio River both north and south of downtown. It is expected that the river improvement project will reinforce the connection to the San Antonio Missions and encourage visitors to circulate along the river beyond the downtown area. Master of Architecture students of The University of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA) explored the sustainable tourism alternatives in the Mission Historic District in the spring semesters of 2012 and 2013. The Advanced Design Studio (ARC 6136) focused on research-based exploration and application of advanced design theory relative to alternative tourism. This course discussed the relationships between the design of architecture, tourist city, and the alternative practices of tourism. Students investigated the tourism potentials in the District such as sustainable tourism, rural tourism, recreational tourism, cultural heritage tourism, and culinary tourism, and develop master plans for the selected sites. Students were expected to plan, program, and design the proposed tourism activities and tourist spaces on both urban and building scales. This paper focuses specifically on culinary tourism, cultural heritage tourism, and rural tourism, and discusses how to enhance the attractiveness of the destination for visitors and residents; expand the tourism activities offered; and provide maximum efficiency in the economical, historical, social, and cultural dimensions of tourism through sustainable development practices and proposed design projects.

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