Milk Vein Research Articles

Colour Doppler study of blood flow in the portal vein in relation to blood flow in the milk vein, milk yield and body condition of dairy cows during dry period and lactation

In dairy cows, the liver supports the increased nutrient demands of the udder for milk production. Blood flow is key for the transport of these nutrients. This study investigated portal vein blood flow volume (PVBFVol) in relation to daily milk yield (DMY), milk vein blood flow volume (MVBFVol) and body condition parameters of high-producing dairy cows, starting from late lactation, throughout dry period, and consecutive early lactation. Seventeen repeated examinations were performed on 19 Holstein cows and 313 measurement days were finally included. Vein morphology and blood flow were examined via B-mode and spectral Doppler (triplex) ultrasonography, respectively. Body condition parameters recorded were body condition score (BCS), backfat thickness (BFT) measurement with ultrasonography, heart girth circumference (HG) and withers height (WH). Longitudinal relationship of PVBFVol with MVBFVol, DMY, BCS, BFT, HG and WH was analyzed with linear mixed models, with random intercept effects, using restricted cubic splines. A significant increase of 8.28% (p < 0.01) in PVBFVol appeared for every 1 L/min increase in MVBFVol in the univariable model. PVBFVol presented a significant negative association with BCS (p < 0.01) and BFT (p = 0.02), while interaction with production stage was significant, too. PVBFVol significantly increased by 0.38% (p = 0.04) for every 1 kg increase in DMY in the multivariable model. In conclusion, the increased PVBFVol during lactation accompanies the escalation in metabolic activity of the liver and the increased blood circulation through the udder, coping with the udder's escalating nutrient demands for milk synthesis.

Udder Ultrasonography of Dairy Cows: Investigating the Relationship between Echotexture, Blood Flow, Somatic Cell Count and Milk Yield during Dry Period and Lactation.

Udder health of dairy cows is related to their productivity and welfare. The period from dry-off to calving and early lactation is crucial. Ultrasonography is a useful and practical tool for the examination of the mammary parenchyma and blood flow. This observational study investigated the relationship between udder echotexture features, blood flow volume (BFVol) in the milk vein, milk somatic cell count (SCC) and daily milk yield (DMY) from late lactation, throughout the dry period and consecutive early lactation. Seventeen repeated measurements were performed on twenty-one Holstein cows. The udder parenchyma was examined with B-mode ultrasonography. Udder echotexture was studied using 15 features: Numerical Pixel Value (NPV), Pixel Standard Deviation (PSD), Skewness, Excess, Contrast, Homogeneity, Correlation, Entropy, Run Percentage, Long-Run Emphasis, Grey Value Distribution, Runlength Distribution, Gradient Mean Value, Gradient Variance and Percentage of Non-zero Gradients. Blood flow in the milk vein was examined with spectral Doppler. Linear mixed-effects models were employed to investigate relationships between BFVol, udder echotexture features, SCC and DMY throughout the study period. Our models showed that a 1 kg increase in DMY was associated with a significant increase of 0.25 L/min in the expected BFVol and that a 1,000,000-cells/mL increase in SCC was associated with a significant BFVol decrease of 0.49 L/min, keeping all other variables constant. Multivariable models showed significant associations between DMY and NPV, between PSD and Long-Run Emphasis, and between SCC and NPV, PSD, Gradient Mean Value, Homogeneity, Gradient Variance and Entropy. In conclusion, udder echotexture and BFVol in the milk vein are related to SCC and milk yield. Ultrasonography can be used for the comprehensive assessment of udder health in support of precision dairy farming.

Udder, teat, and milk vein measurements of Indian dromedary camel and its relationship with milkability traits.

The economic viability of the camel in the current scenario can be ensured by improving its dairy potential. The study on the udder and teat characteristics of dromedary camel and understanding its relationship with milk yield and milkability can be of great value in establishing camel as a dairy animal. The present study was conducted on 45 lactating she-camels of four Indian camel breeds, viz., Bikaneri, Jaisalmeri, Kachchhi, and Mewari, stationed at ICAR-NRCC Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The udder, teat, and milk vein measurements traits, factors affecting these traits and their relationship with milkability traits, were studied in hand-milked Indian dromedary camel. The means ± S.E. of teat lengths (TL), namely, left fore (LF), left rear (LR), right fore (RF), and right rear (RR), were observed as 52.21 ± 1.66, 58.52 ± 2.11, 50.13 ± 1.74, and 54.37 ± 1.82mm, respectively. The means ± S.E. of teat diameter (TD), namely, left fore, left rear, right fore, and right rear teat diameters, were observed as 42.44 ± 1.60, 46.01 ± 1.68, 39.29 ± 1.31, and 45.20 ± 1.56mm, respectively. The means ± S.E for udder depth, udder length, udder height from the ground, milk vein diameter, and milk vein length were observed as 25.44 ± 0.42, 37.29 ± 0.80, 114.80 ± 0.80, 2.02 ± 0.08, and 88.70 ± 0.96cm, respectively. Udder and milk vein measurements did not differ significantly between breeds. Kachchhi breed has largest teat length and diameter. The breed differences were significant (p ≤ 0.05) for TL-LF, TL-RF, and TD-RR only. The effect of parity was non-significant on udder, teat, and milk vein measurement traits except TD-RR (p ≤ 0.05); however, second parity animals had higher values for all the studied traits except udder height from ground. Positive and highly significant (p ≤ 0.01) correlation of milk yield was observed with the majority of udder, teat, and milk vein measurements, milking time, and milk flow rate, while a negative correlation was found with udder height from ground and milk let-down time. It can be concluded that udder characteristics are influenced by various genetic and non-genetic factors and its relationship with milk yield and milkability can be used for selection and dairy management purposes.

Milk yield variation partially attributed to blood oxygen-mediated neutrophil activation in lactating dairy goats.

Blood oxygen is an essential component for numerous biological processes of mammalian animals. Milk production of ruminants largely relies on the supply of nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids. To define the regulatory role of blood oxygen availability in regard to milk production, seventy-five healthy Guanzhong dairy goats with similar body weight, days in milk and parities were selected. For each animal, milk yield was recorded and milk sample was collected to determine compositions. Milk vein blood was collected to determine parameters including blood gas, physio-biochemistry and haematology. Another blood sample was prepared for transcriptome and RT-qPCR. Results showed that both pressure of oxygen (pO2) in the milk vein (positively) and numbers of neutrophils in mammary vein (negatively) were associated with milk yield of the animals. To learn the role of pO2 in blood cell functionality, twelve animals (six with higher yield (H-group) and six with lower yield (L-group)) from seventy-five goats were selected. Compared with animals in L-group, goats in H-group were higher in pO2 but lower in pCO2, lactate, lactate dehydrogenase activity and neutrophil abundance in milk vein, compared with L-group. The blood transcriptome analysis suggested that compared with L-group, animals in H-group were depressed in functionality including neutrophil activation and metabolic pathways including glycolysis, NF-κB and HIF-1. Our result revealed that lower milk production could be associated with neutrophil activation responding to low pO2 in the mammary vein. In the meantime, we highlighted the potential importance of blood oxygen as a milk yield regulator.

Utility of anti-thrombotic coating (SEC-1 coating) for peripherally inserted central catheters

<h2>Summary</h2><h3>Introduction</h3> Peripherally inserted central venous catheter (PICC) has a risk of causing phlebitis and thrombus occlusion. We coated the surfaces of the PICC with a specialized coating material (SEC-1) which may prevent thrombogenicity and phlebitis. This study aimed to evaluate SEC-1 coating PICCs using big animal. <h3>Methods</h3> SEC-1 coating was used to both the internal and external surface of the catheter. In internal coating evaluation, the swine blood was filled up to 10 cm from the tip of the catheter into both non-coated and SEC-1-coated PICC (4Fr). Then we attempted to release the catheter occlusion at 5, 15 and 30 min while measuring the occlusion pressure by a digital pressure gauge. In external coating evaluation, after optimizing the phlebitis model using milk vein in swine, both PICCs inserted at a depth of 15 cm in the vein were forcibly withdrawn a distance of 5 cm and re-inserted 100 times. After 2days, we assessed inflammatory cell infiltration by histological evaluation. <h3>Result</h3> The catheter occlusion release pressure at 5 min was measured at the non-coated: 2 and SEC-1-coated PICC:2 kPa. At 15 min, 7 and 4 kPa (<i>p</i>=0.38). At 30 min, 30 and 4 kPa (<i>p</i>=0.01). In external coating evaluation, there was no clear difference between the non-coated and the SEC-1-coated PICC in terms of inflammatory cell infiltration. <h3>Conclusion</h3> The results of this study suggest that antithrombotic coating (SEC-1 coating) of PICC catheters may inhibit thrombogenicity. However, we were unable to confirm that it was effective in the control of phlebitis.

Phenotypic characterization of Dagri cattle of Gujarat

A hill cattle population locally known as Dagri reared by tribals from eastern border districts of Gujarat adjoiningto Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, mainly Dahod and Chhotaudepur and to some extent Panchmahal, Mahisagarand Narmada was investigated for its phenotypic characterization. A total of 606 animals were examined for bodymeasurements. Body weight of the newborn calf (4) and preweaning weight (24) were recorded by actualmeasurement on the weighing scale while, the body weight of animals above 1-year (606) was derived from bodymeasurements using standard formula. Body measurements in males, females and heifers were taken on 606 animals. Milk composition was studied in milk samples from 50 cows. Draughtability was also studied on 11 pairs ofbullocks. Dagri animals possessed predominantly white coat colour (males 95.45%; females 86.89%). Muzzle colour was mainly black (males 95.45%; females 91.59%). Eyelids were mainly black (males 100%; females 98.22%). Horn and tail switch were mainly black while hoof colour was mainly pale black. Horns were curved and oriented upward-outward. Forehead was straight. Ears were small oriented horizontally. Dagri cattle had small hump, dewlap and naval flap. The udder was bowl shaped, small sized with round tipped cylindrical teats and with no prominent milk vein. The means (cm) for chest girth, body length, height at withers and hip height were 134.40±4.03, 115.46±3.37, 106.66±2.11 and 109.13±1.84, respectively, in adult males and 128.93±0.35, 110.82±0.34, 102.46±0.28 and 104.99±0.26, respectively, in adult females. The means (cm) for face length, tail length, horn length, horn circumference, hump height, navel length, dewlap length, forehead width, ear length and ear width were 35.86±1.00, 67.33±1.37, 21.64±2.65, 18.00±0.85, 10.00±0.66, 05.87±0.54, 78.40±2.57, 15.66±0.54, 21.06±0.78 and 10.00±0.32 respectively in adult males and 35.95±0.10, 66.91±0.25, 19.26±0.29, 12.91±0.10, 06.98±0.06, 01.40±0.06, 72.86±0.35, 13.12±0.05, 19.23±0.11, 10.50±0.06 cm, respectively, in adult females. The mean body weight (kg) at different age groups, viz. birth weight, pre-weaning weight, body weight at 12 months, body weight at 24 months and adult weight were 16.75±0.25, 27.12±2.02, 60.02±19.85, 108.08±13.72, 223.85±14.70, respectively, in males and 13.0±1.0, 27.1±3.01, 66.5±7.16, 116.7±8.67, 169.63±1.21, respectively, in females. Reproduction traits, viz. age at first oestrus, age at first mating, age at first calving were 32 to 42, 42 to 48 and 48 to 60 months, respectively, in females. Production traits, viz. daily milk yield, lactation length and lactation milk yield were 1.75 kg, 120–240 days and 75–600 kg, respectively. These data were derived from farmers’ personal interview at their doorstep. Milk fat and SNF percentage were 4.08% and 9.18%. This lesser known population of hilly cattle was not recognized and registered as distinct breed before this investigation. This study played a major role in recognition and registration of this population. As a result of these efforts it is now recognized and registered as new cattle breed with accession no. INDIA_CATTLE_0400_DAGRI_03046.

МОЛОЧНАЯ ПРОДУКТИВНОСТЬ ГОЛШТИНОВ РАЗНЫХ СЕЛЕКЦИЙ В УСЛОВИЯХ МОЛОЧНО-ТОВАРНЫХ ФЕРМ

This work aims to identify the level of productivity of Holstein cows of different breedings. The experimental studies were performed using purebred Holstein animals imported from Germany, Hungary, and Finland. When studying the exterior-constitutional features of livestock raised on the farm, it was found that Holstein cows as a whole were characterized by a relatively strong constitution, a proportionally developed and slightly elongated body with average live weight, deep chests with well-defined milk veins, glandular and properly attached bath-like and cup-shaped udder, with an average intensity of milk yield (2.12-2.4 kg/min). According to the expressiveness of dairy forms, the best indicators were for animals of Hungarian breeding with the linear affiliation of Reflection Sovering, and in cows of German and Finnish breedings - Montwik Chieftain. A study of the dairy productivity of cows showed that the greatest milk yield over 305 days for three lactations, depending on the linear affiliation, was for Hungarian cows: during the 1st lactation - 6465.9- 6951.2 kg, the 2nd lactation - 7463.5-7706.2 kg, according to the 3rd lactation - 8254.2-8297.7 kg of milk. A comparative evaluation of the dairy production of cows showed that the highest dairy productivity was noted in cows of the Reflection Sovering line. Thus, the average milk yield in cows of this line in the first three lactations was higher than in analogs of the Finnish breeding by 885 kg (13.02%) and German one - by 892 kg or 13.1% (P&lt;0.05), Vis Beck Ideal by 444.5 kg (6.2%) and 807 kg or 12.0% (P&lt;0.01) respectively. The animals of the Montwik Chieftain line of the Hungarian breeding exceeded in the milk yield of the German cows by 176.5 kg (2.4%) and the Finnish cows by 238.2 kg or 3.3%. Indicators of the coefficient of variation in milk yield show that the herd of Holstein cows in the first and third lactations is very heterogeneous. According to the second lactation, the representatives of the Vis Beck Ideal line of the German selection and the Montwik. It was established that in the coefficient of consistency of lactation, cows of German breeding exceeded the analogs of the Finnish and Hungarian breedings by 4.7 and 6.7%, respectively. Herewith, in the Hungarian cows, the lactation full value indicator was higher by 18.3% and 1%, which indicates higher stability of milk yield of cows of this group for the entire lactation. In such a way, our analysis of the morphofunctional properties of the udder showed that the investigated groups of animals correspond to the technological requirements for industrial keeping technology and organizing machine milking.

Measurement of Mammary Blood Flow in Lactating Camels (Camelus dromedarius) Using Antipyrine Absorption Method

Mammary blood flow has been measured in human breast as well as cow, sheep and goat udders. According to the available literature, mammary blood flow has not been measured in lactating camels. So, the objective of this research was to measure mammary blood flow (MBF) in lactating camel. Data from two lactating camels were used to measure MBF using the antipyrine absorption method. Following complete manual removal of the milk from the udder, 3g of antipyrine dissolved in 30mL of distilled water was injected into each udder gland by the teat orifice. Blood samples were collected simultaneously from the left and right milk veins and pulmonary artery at 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 minutes following the infusion of antipyrine. Oxytocin (20IU) was injected intravenously 45 min following the infusion of antipyrine, and the volume of the milk removed by manual milking from each udder quarter was measured. Concentrations of antipyrine in the milk and blood were calculated, and MBF per udder gram per minute was measured. Results showed MBF of 6250ml/min (9000L/24h) for camel number 1 and 7800ml/min (11232L/24h) for camel number 2. Blood to milk ratios were 1200:1 and 1021:1 for camel number 1 and 2, respectively. MBF per gram of udder weight was 735.29ml/min/g and 829.78ml/min/g for camel number 1 and 2, respectively.

Relationship between pulsed wave Doppler ultrasonographic features of milk veins and CMT scores in Simmental cows

This study aimed to determine the distribution of pulsed wave Doppler ultrasonographic features of milk veins in lactating cows corresponding to udder health and the results of California Mastitis Test (CMT). Clinically healthy Simmental cows aged 3-5 years within the first 12 weeks of postpartum period were used for the study. End Diastolic Velocities (EDV), Systolic Peak Velocity (SPV), and Time-Averaged Maximum Velocity (TAMV) were the measured Doppler features of the milk veins. Numerical scales for Pulsatile Index (PI) and Resistant Index (RI) were devised in accordance with blood flow parameters. The animals were allocated to two groups according to CMT results as CMT positive (n=21) and CMT negative (n=5). No differences were found between the group regarding to PI, RI, EDV, or SPV (p>0.05). However, TAMV was found to be lower in CMT-positive animals (7.52 ± 0.85 cm/sec) compared to CMT-negative (13.90 ± 3.56 cm/sec) animals (p=0.021)

Characterization of Gangatiri cattle breed inGangatic plains of Eastern Uttar Pradesh

The present research work for characterization of Gangatiri cattle was conducted on a herd maintained at Mirzapur district of Uttar Pardesh. This dual-purpose indigenous cattle breed is found mainly in Varanasi, Chandauli, Ghazipur and Ballia distric of eastern Utter Pradesh and adjacent areas of Bihar state of India., Medium sized dewlap, small brisket, sharp and smooth shoulder with medium legs was present in most of the animals. Medium sized bowl shaped udder with cylindrical shaped medium sized teats and prominent, crooked and branched milk veins were the other characteristic features of the herd. The overall least squares’ means for Ischium width of Rump (ISWR), Top line (TPL), Udder length (UL), Udder diameter (UD), Teat length (TtL), Udder circumference (UC), Distance between fore to fore (DFF) and rear to rear teats (DRR) were 20.79±0.57, 144.64±1.67, 26.17±1.21, 11.03±1.40, 5.33±0.31, 68.84±3.89, 6.03±0.50 and 4.93±0.21 cm, respectively.

Milk yield, feed efficiency and metabolic profiles in Jersey and Holstein cows assigned to different fat supplementation strategies

The study aimed to analyse the combined effect of lactation stage and fat supplementation. Either protected or unprotected fat was fed to dairy cows to quantify effects on dry matter intake (DMI), mammary nutrient uptake, energy corrected milk (ECM) yield, milk composition, and energy, N and feed efficiency. Additionally, we studied the effect of adding Hydroxy-methionine-analogue-isobutyrate (HMBi) to the ration supplemented with protected fat. A total of 107 Holstein cows and 54 Jersey cows were assigned to one of four different mixed dietary treatments: Control (CON), control supplemented with whole cracked rapeseed (WCR), control supplemented with rumen protected vegetable fat (Lipmix 40/60, Lipitec, NLM Vantinge Aps, Ringe, Denmark) (RPF), and RPF supplemented with HMBi (MetaSmart, Adisseo, France) (RPFA). Rations contained 2.63%, 5.63%, 5.55%, and 5.59% crude fat on dry matter (DM) basis and 1.77%, 4.29%, 4.59%, and 4.63% FA of DM for CON, WCR, RPF and RPFA, respectively. All cows were offered the same concentrate in the automatic milking system in addition to the mixed rations. After calving, cows were fed CON until they had gained 11kg (Jersey) or 15kg (Holstein) body weight, compared to their lowest recorded weight after calving. Subsequently, the cows were randomly assigned to one of the four treatments until the end of lactation. There was no effect of feeding strategy on DM intake during week 9–40 of lactation. Fat supplemented rations (WCR; RPF) increased yield of milk, ECM and lactose, but decreased milk protein and urea concentrations compared to CON. No effects of HMBi on milk yield and composition were detected. Lactation persistency was improved for all fat supplemented treatments for multiparous cows, particularly with WCR. Fat supplemented rations decreased energy efficiency in Jersey cows but increased energy efficiency in Holstein cows. Because fat supplementation reduced dietary protein concentration and increased milk production, protein intake was lower and N efficiency was higher on WCR and RPF than on CON. Metabolite concentrations in jugular vein blood plasma and concentration differences between jugular and milk veins, which reflect nutrient uptake by the mammary gland, were not affected by the ration fed, breed, or time from calving until ration change. In conclusion, fat supplementation during weeks 9–40 of lactation increased ECM yield and N efficiency irrespective of source of fat, whereas additional supplementation of HMBi showed no effect. The effect of fat persisted throughout lactation.

Indigenous cattle of Manipur - Characterization and performance evaluation

Manipur had 2.63 lakh cattle head including 2.19 lakh indigenous and 0.44 lakh crossbred in the year 2012. The trends in cattle population during the years 2003-07 showed a decline of 18.32% in total cattle population, 20.86% in indigenous cattle and 6.06% in crossbred cattle. There is not a single registered breed of cattle from the state. In the present study an attempt was made to characterize and evaluate indigenous cattle of the state as there is no information available in the literature on these cattle. Surveys were conducted in Imphal East, Imphal West (Valley districts) and Churachandpur (Hilly district) districts. Farmers (83) and animals (363) of different age and sex from 13 villages were included in the present study. The indigenous cattle of Manipur are of medium size, stout and hardy. Animals were reared mainly on extensive system of management i.e. grazing from morning to evening. During December to June when rice crop is there, animals were provided rice bran and rice waste as concentrate. The body colour was different i.e. brown (76%), black (12%), gray (4%) and spotted with black or white patches on brown body (8%). Bullocks had medium hump. Horns were small, black (82%) or gray (18%) in colour. Udder was small, not well developed and milk veins were not prominent. Temperament was docile in all the cases. The average body length, height at wither, heart girth, paunch girth, ear length, face length, tail length without switch and horn length in cows were measured. Cows and bullocks did not differ significantly in all the morphometric traits. The average daily milk yield was 2.65±0.18 kg (2.0 to 4.5 kg). Animals showed uniformity in physical and morphometric traits. Cows showed good potential for milk production and there is a need of systematic genetic improvement programs to develop and improve the milk productivity.

Lipopolysaccharides, cytokines, and nitric oxide affect secretion of prostaglandins and leukotrienes by bovine mammary gland during experimentally induced mastitis in vivo and in vitro

The aim of the study was to determine the effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF), interleukin-1-alpha (IL-1α), and nitric oxide donor (NONOate) on both in vivo and in vitro secretion of prostaglandin (PG)E2, PGF2α, leukotriene (LT)B4, and LTC4 by the bovine mammary gland. In the first experiment, tissues isolated from the teat cavity and lactiferous sinus were treated in vitro with LPS (10 ng/mL), TNF (10 ng/mL), IL-1α (10 ng/mL), NONOate (10−4 M), and the combination of TNF + IL-1α + NONOate for 4 or 8 h. PGE2 or PGF2α secretion was stimulated by all treatments (P < 0.05) excepting NONOate alone, which did not stimulate PGF2α secretion. Moreover, all factors increased LTB4 and LTC4 secretion (P < 0.05). In the second experiment, mastitis was experimentally mimicked in vivo by repeated (12 h apart) intramammary infusions (5 mL) of (1) sterile saline; (2) 250-μg LPS; (3) 1-μg/mL TNF; (4) 1-μg/mL IL-1α; (5) 12.8-μg/mL NONOate; and (6) TNF + IL-1α + NONOate into 2 udder quarters. All infused factors changed PGE2, 13,14-dihydro,15-keto-PGF2α, and LT concentrations in blood plasma collected from the caudal vena cava, the caudal superficial epigastric (milk) vein, the jugular vein, and the abdominal aorta (P < 0.05). In summary, LPS and other inflammatory mastitis mediators modulate PG and LT secretion by bovine mammary gland in both in vivo and in vitro studies.

Correlation between the milk vein internal diameter surface andmilk yield in Simmental cows

It is known that milk production is directly correlated with the blood flow through the mammary gland, and milk veins drain approximately 90% of the total blood passing through this organ. The aim of the present study was to determine the relationship between milk vein internal diameter surface and milk production in Simmental cows. The milk vein internal diameter was measured by ultrasonography in heifers during the 2nd month of the first gravidity, and again on day 50 following the second calving. After the application of exclusion criteria, the internal vein diameter surface area was mathematically calculated (mm2) for a total of 80 cows. No significant correlation between milk vein internal diameter surface in heifers and milk production for the same animal during the second lactation was recorded. However, greater milk vein internal diameter surface 50 days following the second calving was correlated with higher milk production during the second lactation (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that ultrasonography is a useful tool in calculating the milk vein internal diameter surface as an indicator of possible milk production in Simmental cows.

Characterisation of Mizoram Native Cattle of Indian Origin

A total of 33 farmers from 11 villages of Champhai and Kolasib districts were interviewed and 237 animals of different age and sex were recorded for physical and morphometric characteristics and performance to characterise indigenous cattle of Mizoram state. Based on the maximum number of indigenous cattle revealed from livestock census, two districts were selected for survey viz. Champhai (6663) and Kolasib (4720). Animals were reared mainly on extensive management conditions. The body colour varied in different colours i.e. brown (85%), black (11%) and gray (41%). Animals were small in size with cylindrical type of body. Udder was small and milk veins were not prominent. The daily milk production ranged from 1.5 to 3.5 kg. The average milk yield was 1.54±0.11 kg. The average age at first calving, lactation length, dry period, service period, calving interval, herd life and number of calving during life time were 1160 days (28 to 42 months) 178 days (150–210 days), 132 days (120–150 days), 121 days (90–120 days), 638 days (12–24 months), 15–20 years and 8–10 calving, respectively. A pair of bullock may plough about 0.5 acre of land in 5–6 hours. Different body measurements revelead that animals are small in size. It was observed that cows had good potential for milk production in the difficult climate. There is urgent need plan genetic improvement programs to improve the productivity of indigenous cattle of the state.

Characterization and evaluation of hill cattle of Garhwal region of Uttarakhand, India

A survey was conducted in 18 villages of Rudarpryag, Chamoli and Uttarkashi districts of Garhwal region to characterize hill cattle in the region. A total of 146 farmers and 451 animals of different age and sex were covered in the present study. The survey revealed that there is large number of hill cattle in the region. Animals of were reared on semi intensive system of management. Grazing was from afternoon to evening during the whole year. Animals were smaller in size with cylindrical type of body. The black body colour predominates in the region. Udder was small, touching to the body, not well developed and milk veins were not prominent. Sizes of fore and rear udder were small. The ranges of different biometric traits showed that animals are similar to Vechur and Panganaur for their size and smaller than the Hariana and Sahiwal breeds of cattle. The average age at first calving, daily milk yield, lactation length, dry period, service period and calving interval were 42 months, 1.52 kg, 285 days, 120 days, 110 days and 364 days, respectively. A pair of bullock may plough about 4–6 Nali of land in 3 to 4 hours in a day. A total of 51 blood samples of unrelated hill cattle animals were collected from Garhwal region for genetic characterization. DNA was isolated and analyzed by a panel of 21 microsatellite markers. The average observed and expected number of alleles, observed and expected heterozygocity and heterozygote deficit were 12.91 (6–12), 5.66 (2.41 to 11.39), 0.699 (0.271 to 0.938), 0.782 (0.585 to 0.912) and 0.118 (−0.198 to 0.537), respectively. The different genetic diversity parameters showed that population is comparable with the hill cattle of Kumanu region and Hariana cattle. Different parameters showed sufficient allelic diversity in the population.

Relationships between conformation traits and milk off-take of indigenous cattle breeds in north-western Ethiopia

The phenotypic correlations between selected body conformation traits and milk off-take of three indigenous cattle breeds were evaluated against a backdrop of widespread traditional practice of identifying better milking cows and heifers using these traits. It was conducted in Fogera, Dembia and Wogera districts of northern-western Ethiopia. One-shot exploratory field visits were used to randomly identify sample cattle herds. Data were collected on eight quantitative and six qualitative body conformation traits as well as milk off-take from 126 sample cows. Pearson's correlation coefficients were determined between these traits and milk off-take for large, medium and small categories of navel flap-size categories. Results show that the average daily milk off-take varies significantly between categories of udder size, size of milk vein and neck length mainly not only in Fogera but also in Dembia and Wogera cows. Statistically significant phenotypic correlations exist between all the quantitative conformation traits and milk off-take in the three breeds but the type and strength of these associations are variable, indicating breed specificity of these associations. The significant correlations between width and length of navel flap with milk off-take are consistent with traditional knowledge of farmers of using navel flap size as an indicator of better milk production in these indigenous cows. The negative correlations of milk off-take with dewlap width in both Fogera and Wogera cattle, especially under the large navel flap category, are in agreement with the indigenous knowledge of these communities about these associations. It was therefore concluded that these traditional subjective practices can be improved by introducing convenient ways of objectively measuring these traits and using them in more conclusive and predictable ways.

Perspectives of cesarean section in buffaloes

Abstract Cesarean section in buffaloes is an emergency operative procedure being performed prinicipally for uncorrectable uterine torsions and for delivery of fetal monsters. Left paramedian (lateral and parallel to the milk vein) and oblique ventrolateral (above arcus cruralis) are the two common operative sites used for buffalo caesarean section. Although many anesthetic combinations including intravenous and inhalation anesthetic procedures have been experimented in the buffalo species yet most caesarean sections in buffaloes are satisfactorily performed in right lateral recumbency under mild sedation and local infiltration analgesia or paravertebral nerve blocks. The history, indications, anesthesia, operative procedures, post operative complications and future fertility following caesarean section in buffalo are described.

Relationship between udder morphology traits, alveolar and cisternal milk compartments and machine milking performances of dairy camels (Camelus dromedarius)

A total of 22 dairy dromedary camels under intensive conditions in late lactation (275±24 days) were used to study the relationship between external and internal udder morphology and machine milking performances. Measurements of udder and teat morphology were obtained immediately before milking and in duplicate. Individual milk yield, lag time and total milking time were recorded during milking, and milk samples were collected and analyzed for milk composition thereafter. Cisternal and alveolar milk volumes and composition were evaluated at 9 h milking interval. Results revealed that dairy camels had well developed udders and milk veins, with medium sized teats. On average, milk yield as well as milk fat and protein contents were 4.80±0.50 L d-1, 2.61±0.16% and 3.08±0.05%, respectively. The low fat values observed indicated incomplete milk letdown during machine milking. Lag time, and total milking time were 3.0±0.3, and 120.0±8.9s, on average, respectively. Positive correlations (p&lt;0.05) were observed between milk yield and udder depth (r=0.37), distance between teats (r=0.57) and milk vein diameter (r=0.28), while a negative correlation was found with udder height (r=-0.25, p&lt;0.05). Cisternal milk accounted for 11% of the total udder milk. Positive correlations were observed between total milk yield and volume of alveolar milk (r=0.98; p&lt;0.001) as well as with volume of cisternal milk (r=0.63, p&lt;0.05). Despite the low udder milk storage capacity observed in dairy camels, our study concluded that the evaluated dromedary sample had adequate udder morphology for machine milking. Finally, positive relationships were detected between milk yield and udder morphology traits of dairy camels.

Thermophysiological study in lactating and dry camels (Camelus&lt;br&gt;dromedarius) under summer conditions

A comparative study on thermophysiological responses of 24 lactating and non-lactating (dry) camels maintained under natural summer conditions was carried out with 2 Arabian native breeds. Study parameters (meteorology, thermophysiology, infrared thermography) were measured in both breeds at the evening milking (17:00h) throughout 3 consecutive days. It appears evident that lactating camels are more thermally labile than their dry counterparts under such environmental conditions. This fact was proven by higher body temperatures of lactating camels than their dry counterparts (rectal temperature: 38.01 ± 0.07°C VS 37.80 ± 0.06°C and vaginal temperature: 38.20 ± 0.08°C VS 37.79 ± 0.07°C, P< 0.05). Additionally, this was further emphasized by the noticeable increases of several thermophysiological parameters in lactating camels including their respiratory rate (6.57%), heart rate (9.36%), as well as body (11.06%), udder (4.74%), teat (5.52%), and milk vein (4.51%) surface temperatures. In conclusion, lactating camels expressed higher thermophysiological responses over dry camels. Infra-red thermography can be a suitable tool for non-invasive method that detects surface heat radiation in dromedary camels.