Military Training Exercises Research Articles

Military teams - A demand for resilience.

The Royal Norwegian Naval Academy (RNoNA) has an interest in enhancing military teams' knowledge, skills and abilities to deal with complex situations and environments. The objective is to document the need for resilience in military teams and to expand the understanding of how such behavior can be meaningfully instilled through team training interventions. Norwegian military subject matter experts (SMEs) assessed the performance of military teams participating in complex military training exercises. Eight cadet teams at the RNoNA were assessed during two separate 4-hour simulator training exercises and a 48-hour live training exercise. Positive Spearman rank correlation coefficients between resilience assessments in the simulator training exercises and the live training exercise were strongest when the simulator scenario emphasized resilience factors inherent in the live exercise, and weakest when the simulator scenario did not facilitate the task demands in the live exercise. The study showed that resilience assessed in teams during simulator training exercises predicted their resilient behavior in a subsequent live training exercise and that the proper design of scenario-based simulator training can realistically and effectively represent resilience stressors found in live operations.

β-Alanine supplementation and military performance.

During sustained high-intensity military training or simulated combat exercises, significant decreases in physical performance measures are often seen. The use of dietary supplements is becoming increasingly popular among military personnel, with more than half of the US soldiers deployed or garrisoned reported to using dietary supplements. β-Alanine is a popular supplement used primarily by strength and power athletes to enhance performance, as well as training aimed at improving muscle growth, strength and power. However, there is limited research examining the efficacy of β-alanine in soldiers conducting operationally relevant tasks. The gains brought about by β-alanine use by selected competitive athletes appears to be relevant also for certain physiological demands common to military personnel during part of their training program. Medical and health personnel within the military are expected to extrapolate and implement relevant knowledge and doctrine from research performed on other population groups. The evidence supporting the use of β-alanine in competitive and recreational athletic populations suggests that similar benefits would also be observed among tactical athletes. However, recent studies in military personnel have provided direct evidence supporting the use of β-alanine supplementation for enhancing combat-specific performance. This appears to be most relevant for high-intensity activities lasting 60–300 s. Further, limited evidence has recently been presented suggesting that β-alanine supplementation may enhance cognitive function and promote resiliency during highly stressful situations.

Selecting the Most Relevant Character Strengths for Norwegian Army Officers: An Educational Tool

Problem statement: Officers educated at the Norwegian Military Academy (NMA) will most likely serve in leading roles in international military operations, which will demand both intellect and character. There is, however,a lack of systematic research on which character traits that are crucial forsucceeding in these operations, and hence, to develop during military training and education at the NMA. Purpose of study: This paper discusses the process of selecting the most important character strengths for development in cadets attending the NMA. Method Two groups of participants, one expert group and one military group, were given a list of 24 character strengths to select from (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Findings and Results The following 9 character strengths were most important to both groups: leadership, integrity, persistence, bravery, citizenship, open-mindedness, social intelligence, self-regulation and creativity. In addition, perspective, fairness, and love of learning were chosen by the military group, totaling 12 character strengths in all. Conclusions and recommendations: These 12 character strengths were selected for further researchto explore ways of measuring them live in military training exercises, to determine the extent to which they can be developed through military training, and to see which strengths better predict military officer performance.

Field-User Acceptability Evaluation of a New Stick Camouflage Face Paint Formulation With and Without the Insect Repellent DEET

Two newly designed formulations of stick camouflage face paint, one with 30% N,N-diethyl-3-methylbenzamide (DEET) and the other without DEET, were evaluated for acceptability among soldiers upon completion of normal military field training exercises. A total of 156 soldiers participated and completed a self-administered survey answering questions about product acceptability, packaging, and ease of use. Results of the study indicated that soldiers found stick formulations, with and without DEET, to be acceptable for use (62.9% and 83.7%, respectively). This data will be used by the Program Management Office at the U.S. Army Medical Materiel Development Activity to support a request to the Armed Forces Pest Management Board to assign a National Stock Number.

Mirage in the Making

The Mojave Desert in California is undergoing a boom in renewable energy, mostly in the form of utility-scale solar power plants. These projects have met with resistance from diverse groups concerned about impacts on desert landscapes, ecosystems, water resources, archaeological sites, military training exercises, and other natural and cultural resources and land uses. This paper explores the current debate over renewable energy in the Mojave in the context of the region’s broader environmental history. What do Californians want from the Mojave Desert? We conclude that residents of the state want many things from the Mojave, but it remains unclear whether a desert under increasing pressure will be able to supply all of those competing demands.

Use of Animals by NATO Countries in Military Medical Training Exercises: An International Survey

Among the 28 member nations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a variety of training methodologies--including simulators, moulage scenarios, didactics and live animal laboratories-are used to prepare military medical personnel to treat injured civilians and soldiers. For ethical, educational, practical, and economic reasons, the necessity of animal use for this purpose has come into question. This article reports the results of a survey examining the prevalence of animal use in military medical training exercises among all NATO nations, finding that more than three-quarters of these countries do not use animals.

Contour ripping is more beneficial than composted manure for restoring degraded rangelands in Central Texas

Rangelands in the United States that have been the site of military training exercises have suffered extensive ecological damage, largely because of soil compaction, creation of ruts, and damage to or destruction of vegetation—all of which lead to higher runoff and accelerated erosion. In this paper we report on a study carried out within the Fort Hood Military Reservation in Central Texas, where we evaluated the extent to which application of composted dairy manure and contour ripping affect soil infiltrability, amount of runoff, and nutrient concentrations in runoff. We conducted experiments at two locations, using rainfall simulation at one and monitoring discharge from small (0.3-ha) watersheds at the other. At the rainfall simulation site, we used six levels of compost application: 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 Mg/ha. We found that compost application had little effect on runoff, soil infiltration, sediment production, or nutrient concentrations in the runoff—except at the micro-watershed scale (12 and 24 Mg/ha); in this case, nutrient concentrations in runoff were initially high (for the rainfall simulations done immediately after compost application). In contrast, contour ripping—carried out 22 months after compost application on two of the micro-watersheds—was highly effective: runoff on the treated micro-watershed was reduced by half compared with the untreated micro-watershed. Our results suggest that (1) one-time applications of composted dairy manure do little to enhance infiltration of degraded rangelands over the short term (at the same time, these experiments demonstrated that compost application poses very little risk to water quality); and (2) for degraded rangelands with limited infiltration capacity, contour ripping is an effective strategy for increasing infiltration rates.

A Field Study on the Influence of M1A1 Abrams Tank Traffic on Soil Compaction

Military training exercises using heavy-tracked vehicles is an intensive land-use activity that may result in vegetation disturbances and soil compaction. In this study, the focus was on soil compaction as a result of M1A1 Abrams battle tank traffic. For this purpose, two main treatments were investigated: tank trafficking rates at the time of tank training maneuvers and moisture content of the soil profile. The influence of Abrams tank traffic on soil bulk density and mechanical impedance was measured immediately after the tank passes on plots having three different soil moisture levels. We found increased soil bulk density as a result of tank traffic regardless of the number of tank passes. Overall soil bulk density increases throughout the soil profile were 0.04, 0.07, and 0.04 g/cm3 for the low-, medium-, and high-moisture plots, respectively. After three, six, and nine tank passes, consistent increases in penetrometer resistance measurements were observed. However, the effects of the number of passes appear somewhat inconsistent when low-moisture contents were dominant in the soil profile (0.12–0.17 cm3/cm3). For plots with the highest moisture level (0.37–0.38 cm3/cm3 ), the impact of tank traffic was concentrated in the surface 15 cm, with an average increase of 1 MPa regardless of the number of tank passes. We conclude that the effects of different tank passes on soil compaction did not follow a clear trend. Moreover, based on the residual impact of tank traffic, we conclude that efforts should be made to avoid tank exercises when the moisture content in the soil profile is 0.26 cm3/cm3. We further conclude that tank traffic should be restricted when possible when the soil moisture content is in the 0.40- to 0.46-cm3/cm3 range.

Response of red‐cockaded woodpeckers to military training operations

Response of red‐cockaded woodpeckers to military training operations

Management of a Laterally Luxated Upper Incisor Caused by the Hit of a Rifle Stock

Lateral luxation is the displacement of the tooth in a direction other than axial, which is accompanied by comminution or fracture of the alveolar socket. Lateral luxation is one of the most prevalent dental injuries among the general population, resulting in up to 27% of all dental wounds. All physical activities have an associated risk of orofacial injuries due to falls, collisions, and contact with hard surfaces. Just like any other training activities, military training exercises present a significant risk of dental traumas, which comprise 2% to 8% of all military dental emergencies. The aim of this report was to present a case of a dental lateral luxation caused by the hit of a rifle stock during close combat training. The tooth was extruded from its bony lock, temporarily filled with a calcium hydroxide-based paste, replaced into its original anatomic position, and secured with Ivy loop wirings. The permanent endodontic treatment was performed 4 weeks after repositioning. At the end of the 8-months follow-up, the tooth was asymptomatic and any pathological alterations were absent.

Quantifying the intensity of vehicle impacts using vehicle tracking devices during live training exercises

The operation of off-road vehicles during military training exercises can affect the environmental conditions of training lands by removing or disturbing vegetation. To quantify the impact of vehicle based military training, global positioning system (GPS)-based vehicle tracking systems were used to characterize the movement of vehicles during live training exercises. Methods were developed to spatially estimate the tracking intensity (number of vehicle passes per area) resulting from the training exercises. This method was then combined with previous developed methods that identified off-road trail formation and vehicle dynamic properties to quantify the overall training mission impacts of specific training events on installation resources. This approach to characterizing training impacts results in mission impact profiles that more accurately quantify live training mission impacts. Search radius and output grid size are important parameters of the proposed traffic intensity approximation method. Traffic intensities estimated using a variety of search radii and grid sizes were compared. Results indicated that a 10 m search radius and a 10-by-10 m output grid size worked the best for the study dataset. Approximately, 89% accuracy was found for traffic intensity (number of passes) estimation when using a 10 m search radius and a 10-by-10 m output grid size.

Eye injuries on the battlefields of Iraq and Afghanistan: Public health implications

Background The U.S. Army faces major challenges in balancing the need to protect a soldier from harm while not impeding his ability to fight. Unfortunately, the incidence of combat eye injuries has increased over time, despite the development of protective measures. Methods A cross-sectional study of soldiers evacuated from Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom with eye injuries was performed from March 2003 through December 2004. Data for this study came from the Military Office of the Surgeon General (OTSG) Patient Tracking Database. Results A total of 368 patients (451 eyes) were evacuated for eye-related problems. From March 2003 through December 2004, 15.8% (258 of 1,635 patients, 309 eyes) of all medical evacuations were a result of battle eye injuries (BI), 17.3% (283 of 1,635 patients, 337 eyes) were a result of eye injuries (BI and nonbattle injuries [NBI] combined), and 22.5% (368 of 1,635 patients, 451 eyes) of all evacuations were because of eye-related complaints alone (BI, NBI, or disease) or in combination with other bodily injuries. Conclusion Developing combat eye protection that meets the unique requirements of the military, issuing eyewear to soldiers, and supporting and enforcing its use, will provide the best eye protection for American soldiers during military training exercises and future conflicts.

Soil disturbance and hydrologic response at the National Training Center, Ft. Irwin, California

Military training exercises at the National Training Center (NTC), Ft. Irwin, California have led to the degradation of large areas of the Mojave Desert. Soil physical properties in areas subjected to low and high disturbance at interspace and plant ( Larrea tridentata) mound microsites were quantitatively compared to undisturbed surfaces of both well-developed soils formed on Pleistocene age alluvial deposits and weakly developed soils formed on Holocene age alluvial deposits. Results indicate that geomorphically young and old soils differ in hydraulic and pedogenic properties with and without anthropogenic disturbance. Multi-tension infiltrometers showed that young coarser textured surfaces had saturated conductivities ( K sat) that were nearly twice those of older surfaces. Mound microsites were more sand-rich than interspace locations although K sat was not significantly different. After both low and high disturbance by tracket vehicles, bulk density was significantly increased from 1.54 to 1.62 and 1.80 g cm −3, respectively. Similarly, penetration resistance increased following low and high disturbance from 1.32 to 1.47 and 3.90 kg cm −2, respectively. Although low disturbance increased K sat, high disturbance resulted in significant reductions in both K sat (2.4 to 1.3 cm h −1 ( p<0.05)) and mean Gardner's α (0.20 to 0.10 ( p<0.001)) at all sites. The resulting decrease in α is indicative of a loss in macroporosity from mixing and compaction of the soil matrix. In general, young interspaces were less sensitive to disturbance than older well-developed interspace soils. Although results showed that K sat on these older surfaces was not dramatically reduced despite large losses of fines and increased bulk densities, the overall morphology of the soil was dramatically impacted. Disking or ripping are common methods to alleviate soil strength prior to restoration activities. However, results indicate that these practices may result in further destruction of the soil structure.

Impact of multiple fires on stand structure and tree regeneration in central Appalachian oak forests

The National Guard Training Center at Fort Indiantown Gap (NGTC-FIG) near Harrisburg, PA, has experienced frequent fires since the 1950s on the ridges and 1980s in the valleys as a result of military training exercises. This represented a unique opportunity to investigate the role of recent and repeated fire in oak ( Quercus) forests in the eastern USA. We investigated four frequently burned and two unburned sites replicated in ridge and valley ecosystems. Burned sites generally had lower tree density and a higher proportion of overstory oak species (64–92% relative importance value) than unburned stands (47–49% importance). Oak saplings averaged 875 ha −1 in burned forests and 31 ha −1 in unburned forests. Red maple ( Acer rubrum, L.), the most aggressive oak replacement species in the eastern USA, had overstory importance of 7% and 24% in burned and unburned stands, respectively. Oak saplings ranged from 824 to 1545 ha −1 in three of the four burned stands and 0–62 ha −1 in the unburned stands. Oak sapling density was only 62 ha −1 one recently (2002) burned stand where fire had not resulted in reduced tree density; this stand had the highest tree density of all sampled stands. There were no red maple saplings in three of the four burned stands. Oak saplings were most abundant when overstory density was less than 400 trees/ha and understory tree density was less than 200 trees/ha. When overstory or understory tree density exceeded 400 and 200 trees/ha, respectively, oak regeneration was virtually absent. The results of this study suggest that periodic fire often reduces overstory and understory stand density and promotes successful regeneration of relatively shade intolerant oak species in the eastern USA. However, high tree density in forests will retard the development of oak understories and subsequent recruitment, even if periodic burning occurs.

Respiratory Illnesses in Relation to Military Assignments in the Mojave Desert: Retrospective Surveillance over a 10-Year Period

Military training exercises are conducted routinely in the Mojave Desert. To determine whether assignment in this desert environment increases risk of respiratory illnesses, hospitalization rates were compared between two matched cohorts of soldiers during three intervals of follow-up during a 10-year surveillance period. The exposed cohort (N = 21,543) included all soldiers who were ever assigned to the Mojave Desert during the surveillance period. The control cohort (N = 86,172) included soldiers matched on demographic characteristics who were never assigned to the Mojave Desert during the surveillance period. Three follow-up intervals ("before," "during," "after") were defined relative to times when exposed soldiers were assigned to the desert. Rates of respiratory hospitalizations were similar between the cohorts for the "before" and "during" intervals but were higher in the exposed cohort for the "after" interval (rate ratio, 1.30; 95% confidence interval, 1.07-1.59). This difference was largely attributable to excess pneumonia and influenza hospitalizations in the exposed cohort. Healthy, young adults may have increased susceptibility to respiratory infectious illnesses after prolonged exposures to desert environments.

Resprout characteristics of creosote bush ( Larrea tridentata) when subjected to repeated vehicle damage

Studies were conducted in the central Mojave Desert to quantify how creosote bushes ( Larrea tridentata) respond to physical damage during large-scale military training exercises. Creosote bush possesses a resilient growth form that recovers from repeated physical damage via resprouts arising from meristems in stem bark below severed or crushed canopy units. At high levels of disturbance by heavy vehicles, nearly all individuals showed measurable breakage, but without additional damage each plant can regain a full canopy within 5 years under arid field conditions. Resprouts exhibited more vigorous growth and doubled the biomass accumulation stimulated by high rainfall of 1998, an El Niño year, vs. a normal year. New shoots of resprouted individuals were markedly different in morphological traits than canopy old growth and had slightly higher predawn shoot water potentials. The natural ability of this evergreen species to recover from cutting and crushing bodes well for re-establishment of creosote bush desert scrub communities following episodes of severe damage by vehicles.

Vehicle movement patterns and vegetative impacts during military training exercises

The operation of off-road vehicles during military training exercises can affect the environmental conditions of training lands by removing or disturbing vegetation. The use of global positioning systems (GPS)-based vehicle tracking systems can help to characterize the movement of vehicles during training exercises for the purpose of quantifying vegetative impacts. The combination of GPS positions of vehicles in the field during a training exercise, and geographic information system (GIS) maps of the training installation can provide information about vehicle-specific vegetation impacts of a training exercise, as related to vehicle locations, turning radius and velocity. Such relationships can be used to estimate off-road vegetation impacts. Twenty GPS-based vehicle tracking systems were installed on vehicles of the US Army 3rd Brigade 1/14 Cavalry to evaluate vegetation impacts during a 10 day reconnaissance training exercise at Yakima Training Center in Yakima, WA. The vehicle tracking systems were programmed to record the position of the vehicles every second. The resulting vehicle tracking data were analyzed for quantity of travel per day of the training activity, quantity of travel on and off roads, off-road vehicle dynamic properties turning radius and velocity, and off-road vegetation removed. The vehicles were in motion an average of 8.4% (approximately 2 h per day) of the training exercise time. The average distance traveled per day on roads was 33.5 km, and the average distance traveled per day off-roads was 7.7 km. On average, the vehicles spent 16% of their off-road traveling time at turning radii less than 20 m. Vegetation impacts were compared for different missions. The zone reconnaissance mission produced the highest vegetation impact per distance traveled.

Patton's Tracks in the Mojave Desert, USA: An Ecological Legacy

Recovery of soil properties from World War II-era military training exercises in the Mojave Desert was measured approximately 55 years following disturbance. Tracks from military vehicles were still visible, particularly in areas of desert pavement. Soil penetrability was much lower in visible tracks than outside the tracks. Soils in tracks had fewer rocks in the top 10cm of the soil profile than adjacent untracked soils. Larger particles (> 4.8mm) formed a moderately well-developed pavement outside of the tracks, while smaller, loose particles ( h 4.8mm) dominated the surface of the tracks. The time required to restore the desert pavement is likely to be measured in centuries. Based on biomass estimates, the cyanobacterial component of biological soil crusts had recovered 46-65% in tracks, compared to outside the tracks. Overall recovery of lichen cover has been much slower. Under plant canopies, cover of Collema tenax was not significantly different between areas inside and outside the tracks; however, recovery of Catapyrenium squamulosum was only 36%. In plant interspaces with less favorable moisture and temperature conditions, C. tenax showed a 6% recovery and C. squamulosum a 3% recovery. Assuming recovery of the biological soil crust is linear, and complete only when the most sensitive species (C. squamulosum) has fully recovered in the most limiting microhabitats (plant interspaces), it may require almost two millennia for full recovery of these areas.

Soil and Plant Recovery After Historic Military Disturbances in the Sonoran Desert,USA

Military training exercises in desert areas have resulted in various types of disturbance through time. Camp Laguna, located on the U.S. Army Yuma Proving Ground in southwestern Arizona, served as a military base camp during World War II. The camp exhibits a variety of historic disturbances, including vehicle traffic (motor pool) and foot traffic (tent rows, commons, and footpaths). The extent of soil and plant recovery that has occurred at Camp Laguna in the 56 years since abandonment was assessed by comparing sites with historic disturbance to an apparently undisturbed control site. Vegetative recovery was determined by measuring perennial plant foliar cover and density. Soil was characterized by maximum penetration depth measurements and presence of biological soil crusts. Soil samples were collected and analyzed for inorganic and organic carbon and total nitrogen content. The tent city, disturbed primarily by foot traffic, did not show full recovery of vegetation and biological soil crust to predisturbance conditions. The slow recovery may be attributable to grading that removed topsoil and seed sources when the camp was established. In contrast, most plant species at the motor pool exhibited higher density and greater foliar cover than was found at the control site. This may be the result of a compacted soil layer that enhanced soil-water relations of the upper horizon of the sandy soil and provided fine plant roots with a greater amount of moisture.

Plant Community Responses to Disturbance by Mechanized Military Maneuvers

AbstractThe effects of 10 yr of military training exercises on vegetation structure were assessed across plant communities that differed in physiognomy and soil texture at Pinon Canyon Maneuver Site (PCMS), Colorado, after release from previous grazing management. Covariate analyses aided in separating temporal trends due to both release from grazing and imposition of training disturbance from the direct effect of training. The shift in land use had both synergistic and antagonistic impacts on successional trajectories of communities, and on horizontal and vertical structural heterogeneity. Vegetation basal cover declined with increasing intensity of disturbance by tracked vehicles, but release from grazing acts additively in this ecosystem. Litter cover increased following release from grazing, even though it declined with increasing levels of disturbance. Vehicular maneuvering generally reduced woody life forms in tail‐height classes to a greater extent than short‐height classes. Low growing cacti were susceptible to crushing. Species and functional group responses to vehicular disturbance were sometimes dependent on community type. Long‐lived perennials declined, but were replaced by short‐lived perennials in only the shrub‐grassland community. Annuals and exotics did not show relationships with intensity of disturbance, though some weed species increased. Community‐wide species dissimilarity did not show large shifts, and patterns in species diversity or richness were not related to intensity of disturbance. The PCMS appears to be in a transient stage where release from grazing has had as much or more impacts as did the imposition of military training. Fine textured soils may be more susceptible to the cumulative effects of vehicular loads.