Military Training Areas Research Articles

Mapping Forest Parameters to Model the Mobility of Terrain Vehicles

This study aims to evaluate the feasibility of using non-contact data collection methods—specifically, UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle)-based and terrestrial laser scanning technologies—to assess forest stand passability, which is crucial for military operations. The research was conducted in a mixed forest stand in the Březina military training area, where the position of trees and their DBHs (Diameter Breast Heights) were recorded. The study compared the effectiveness of different methods, including UAV RGB imaging, UAV-LiDAR, and handheld mobile laser scanning (HMLS), in detecting tree positions and estimating DBH. The results indicate that HMLS data provided the highest number of detected trees and the most accurate positioning relative to the reference measurements. UAV-LiDAR showed better tree detection compared to UAV RGB imaging, though both aerial methods struggled with canopy penetration in densely structured forests. The study also found significant variability in DBH estimation, especially in complex forest stands, highlighting the challenges of accurate tree detection in diverse environments. The findings suggest that while current non-contact methods show promise, further refinement and integration of data sources are necessary to improve their applicability for assessing forest passability in military or rescue contexts.

Forestal management based on acoustical values

Around and on military training areas there are usually a large number of forest stands. These primarily fulfil the special requirements of military use due to their special structure and tar-geted development. In particular, the dust, visual and noise protection functions of the forests protect the civilian environment from the undesirable effects of military training operations. The aim of forestal management measures in the forest stands is to provide and ensure these functions by selecting suitable tree species and optimising stand structures. A forest attenua-tion model has been developed in recent years, in which the acoustic attenuation of a forest stand can be deduced from forestal parameters. Furthermore, a method has been developed to predict the overall acoustic attenuation of several consecutive stands. For the planning and assessment of silvicultural measures in military functional forests with regard to their effects on noise attenuation, however, further definitions are necessary in order to be able to draw simple, comprehensible conclusions from the wealth of possible variations. The presentation introduces the models as well as the other necessary definitions and shows their application using an example.

Large, but Dispersal-Limited Populations of the Marsh Fritillary Euphydryas aurinia Persist on Abandoned Military Training Areas Three Decades After the End of the Cold War.

Military training areas can host important biodiversity, due to the preservation of diverse, nutrient-poor historical cultural landscapes and an insect-friendly disturbance regime. In Europe, many training areas were abandoned after the end of the cold war in 1991 and the withdrawal of the Allied and Soviet forces. Many of these are now protected areas, and current management strategies vary from rewilding to active habitat management such as grazing or mowing. In a capture-release-recapture approach, marking 2418 individuals, we assessed the population size and movement patterns of the dry ecotype of the Marsh Fritillary Euphydryas aurinia Rottemburg 1775 on three former military training areas in Germany that varied in size and management (natural succession, mowing, and sheep-/goat grazing). Euphydryas aurinia is a rare and declining butterfly species listed in Annex II of the European Union Habitats Directive. Jolly-Seber models revealed a large population of ca. 19,000 individuals on the largest study site and a smaller population at a second site, whereas recapture rates were too low to predict the population size reliably at a third site. Population densities were 190-194 butterflies ha-1 at the unmanaged, large site and 56-71 butterflies ha-1 at a smaller site grazed with sheep. Thirty-nine percent of the recapture events occurred within the same 1-ha-study plot. The average minimum flight distance between the study plots was 313 m for males and 328 m for females. The maximum lifetime flight distance was 1237 m within 3 days. No dispersal was detected between study sites. Thirty years after cessation of the military use, the large former training site still held what likely is one of the largest populations of the species dry ecotype in Central Europe, including in areas where management ceased already in 1991. This suggests remarkable persistence of the species in areas without regular management, contrary to current opinion. However, regular flight distances seem not to be sufficient to connect the isolated habitat patches. It remains unknown how long the large population at the abandoned military area will persist without active habitat management. Careful, but active habitat management and restoration of habitat connectivity should thus be considered.

Characteristics of Forcible Entries into Objects and an Experimental Assessment of the Potential Impact of Fragments Scattering on Training Safety when Using Fence Charge

The article focuses on the characteristics of forcible entries into objects and the term "breaching", which is often used interchangeably with this activity. The article further addresses the issue of fragments scattering when using a charge to overcome chain-link fences. The introductory chapter describes the execution of training in this field using the exercise facilities that are built for this purpose in military training areas. When conducting explosive forcible entry training, the safe distance for intervening teams and non-participants is determined using given formulas. The purpose of the simulation, mathematical calculations and experiment was to assess the extent to which fragments scattering occurs during explosive overcoming of these fences and whether the procedures used to determine the safe distance for non-participants are sufficient.

Home range and habitat selection of wolves recolonising central European human‐dominated landscapes

Decades of persecution has resulted in the long‐term absence of grey wolves Canis lupus from most European countries. However, recent changes in both legislation and public attitudes toward wolves has eased the pressure, allowing wolves to rapidly re‐establish territories in their previous central European habitats over the last 20 years. Unfortunately, these habitats are now heavily altered by humans. Understanding the spatial ecology of wolves in such highly modified environments is crucial, given the high potential for conflict and the need to reconcile their return with multiple human concerns. We equipped 20 wolves, originating from seven packs in six central European regions, with GPS collars, allowing us to calculate monthly average home range sizes for 14 of the animals of 213.3 km2 using autocorrelated kernel density estimation. We then used ESA WorldCover data to assess the mosaic of available habitats used within each home range. Our data confirmed a general seasonal pattern for breeding individuals, with smaller apparent home ranges during the reproduction phase, and no specific pattern for non‐breeders. Predictably, our wolves showed a general preference for remote areas, and especially forests, though some wolves within military training areas also showed a broader preference for grassland, possibly influenced by local land use and high availability of prey. Our results provide a comprehensive insight into the ecology of wolves during their re‐colonisation of central Europe. Though wolves are spreading relatively quickly across central European landscapes, their permanent reoccupation remains uncertain due to conflicts with the human population. To secure the restoration of European wolf populations, further robust biological data, including data on spatial ecology, will be needed to clearly identify any management implications.

Agrivoltaics in Germany - Status Quo and Future Developments

Ground-mounted photovoltaic facilities in open spaces have been common in Germany for many years. However, according to the legislation, these are only supported by the government on poorer quality soils, former military training areas, or along traffic routes. Nevertheless, also on high quality soils it is not forbidden to install ground-mounted photovoltaic facilities. In recent years, Germany has started implementing agrivoltaics, which is an alternative land use concept that combines agriculture and renewable energy production. This opens the possibility to use land of higher soil quality for energy generation without necessarily creating land-use conflicts and being subsidized by the government. This study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of existing and planned agrivoltaic facilities in Germany analyzing them based on various parameters. The data for this study was collected through a community questionnaire and supplemented with data from state institutions. The results indicate that as of March 2023, 21 agrivoltaic facilities with a total capacity of 81.67 MWp have been installed. A strong increase of the installed capacity is expected in 2023 and 2024, reaching approximately 382.59 MWP by the end of 2024. The market development of agrivoltaics is mainly driven by changes in the legal environment which present opportunities for further market ramp-up of agrivoltaics. The adoption of agrivoltaics shows a notable spatial diversity in Germany which appears to be influenced by the interaction between regulatory environments and agricultural structures.

Red deer responses to drive hunts are related to habitat and landscape characteristics

AbstractHunting triggers behavioral responses in wildlife that may have important consequences for conservation and wildlife management. We studied movement and habitat selection in 51 global positioning system‐collared red deer (Cervus elaphus) in response to 63 large‐scale (x̄ = 18.8 km2) drive hunts conducted in 2015‐2022 on a military training area in southern Germany. The drive hunts were characterized by a low density of beaters and dogs to avoid rapid and long‐distance displacement of red deer. We determined if red deer spatial responses to drive hunts differed in various forest covers, between sexes, and in relation to the individual position prior to the hunt. On the hunting days, red deer increased their hourly displacement rates and shifted their preference for forest versus open habitats from early morning to late morning hours. Individuals initially located within the boundaries of the hunted areas exhibited longer maximum net displacements, had a greater probability of leaving their home ranges, and spent longer times outside of their home ranges than individuals outside the hunted areas. All these parameters were greater in the more forested site than in the less forested site. Males displayed shorter net displacements than females. Red deer moved away (i.e., fled) from their initial positions for variable periods, either only during the hunt or until the next day. The probability of prolonged flight was greater in the more forested site and more likely if the individuals were deeper in the forest in the less forested site. The prolonged flight behavior was desired from the hunters' perspective because red deer displaying this type of response were less likely to leave the hunted area during the hunt. Prolonged flight was associated with greater costs for the red deer, such as greater movement distances after the hunt and longer times outside of home ranges. Wildlife managers should consider that drive hunts may cause prolonged behavioral responses in game that occur both inside and outside the hunted areas. These responses depend on habitat characteristics and may be stronger in more forested landscapes.

Habitat changes explain shifts in bird community composition in abandoned military training areas: Lessons for conservation

Military training areas are important biodiversity refuges and may serve as viable components of regional conservation networks, mainly due to the blocking of ecological succession by the disturbance regime creating a heterogeneous open habitat mosaic hosting many threatened species. However, European armies have undergone downsizing over the past decades and numerous military training areas have been abandoned. The assessment of the consequences of this abandonment for biodiversity would show us whether these abandoned areas still provide conservation benefits. For this purpose, we carried out bird surveys in 30 abandoned military training areas in Czechia. The surveys were performed in two periods (2009 and 2020–2021) to track small-scale changes in land cover and bird abundance after the areas were abandoned in the 1990s. We tested (i) whether changes in bird abundance were related to land cover changes and (ii) whether the observed bird species’ responses to the land cover changes can be explained by species-specific characteristics. Multivariate spatial analyses uncovered significant shifts in land cover composition towards a higher representation of dense shrub, forest and built-up areas at the expense of open areas represented by grassland and sparse shrub. These land cover changes explained a small but significant part of bird abundance variation across the areas. Correspondingly, species benefiting from these land cover changes were associated with dense scrub or forest, such as the Common Chiffchaff, Willow Warbler, or Eurasian Blackcap, whereas species suffering from these changes were associated with grassland, such as the European Stonechat and Eurasian Skylark. Phylogenetically informed interspecific analysis aiming to explain changes in bird abundance between periods confirmed that population declines were linked to open habitat preference, while population increases were linked to the preference for dense shrub and forest. In addition, we found that protected species increased their abundance, most likely due to the existence of conservation management that kept their habitats available. These patterns indicate that military training areas transform toward later successional stages after their abandonment with corresponding changes in bird community composition. However, these changes may not necessarily be negative provided that species of conservation concern enjoy the support of conservation management.

Contribution of military training areas for the conservation of calcareous grasslands

Calcareous grasslands are habitats of high conservation value. These rich habitats are declining notably due to agriculture and habitat fragmentation. In France, calcareous grasslands may be found on Military Training Areas (MTA), which protect them from intensive agriculture and urban development. By analysing their floristic structure and composition, the aim of this publication is to determine the conservation status of grassland on two French MTAs, following a gradient of intensity of military use called “militarisation gradient” in the rest of the publication. Vegetation characteristics appeared different according to the level of military activities. The level of military activity increases the average height of vegetation and the proportion of bare ground as well as the heterogeneity of the environment. Also, military activities and their related management, favour rich and diversified grasslands in a good conservation status, even if it could be improved by some adapted management methods. They also allow the creation of a mosaic of habitats within the grasslands with the presence of overgrown areas. Thus, MTAs appeared to present good potential for preserving of remaining calcareous grassland.

Biodiversity changes in abandoned military training areas: relationships to different management approaches in multiple taxa

Introduction:Abandoned military training areas are biodiversity strongholds, and this is particularly true for open-habitat and threatened species in Central Europe. Such species benefited from a specific disturbance regime created by military activities that maintained small-grained environmental heterogeneity. However, the disturbance regime no longer occurs after abandonment and the biodiversity is at risk due to forest and shrub encroachment if the areas are left unmanaged. To combat these adverse changes, several management options are used. As these options are not always applied for conservation purposes and substantially differ in their implementation, it is essential to assess their impacts on biodiversity.Methods:We performed repeated standardized surveys (first in 2009–2010, second in 2020–2022) of vascular plants, grasshoppers, butterflies and birds in 42 abandoned military training areas in Czechia, a Central European country. We calculated changes of species richness and abundance between periods for each taxon and related these changes to six different management types (woody plant cutting, mowing for conservation, mowing for agriculture, grazing for conservation, grazing for agriculture, vehicle movement) performed in these areas between periods.Results:Vascular plants and grasshoppers showed generally positive changes, whereas the reverse was true for butterflies, and birds experienced mixed changes. Although beta-diversity increased between periods in plants, grasshoppers and butterflies, this increase was driven by extirpation of common species. Management impacts greatly different between respective types and between taxa. Woody plant cutting showed solely positive impacts (on plants and grasshoppers), while the impacts of both types of grazing were mixed (positive on plants and birds, negative on butterflies, mixed on grasshoppers). Mowing for agriculture supported plants and birds but had negative effects on grasshoppers. Mowing for conservation and vehicle movement were linked solely to negative biodiversity changes (former in plants, latter in butterflies).Discussion:Some components of biodiversity, i.e. plants and grasshoppers, indicate that abandoned military training areas still serve as their strongholds and the management most likely contributes to this favourable state. In contrast, the pattern found for butterflies is worrying since the management performed up to now apparently does not meet their requirements, likely because they are based on smaller-scale habitat mosaic than currently occurs in the areas. Our results may serve as a guide for future prioritization of environmental management, and we urge for development of more nuanced approaches to save the butterflies.

Hungarian Guards of a Concentration Camp: Interactions and Atrocities in Bergen-Belsen

Abstract Bergen-Belsen is one of the biggest and most significant concentration camps in the history of the Holocaust. In this paper I reconstruct. 1. The Hungarian Camp between December 1944 and April 1945. 2. The evacuation and settlement of Hungarian military troops to the Bergen military training camp. (Truppenübungsplatz Bergen). This camp is also called as Bergen-Hohne Military Training Area. 3. The interactions between the Hungarian Jewish prisoners and the members of the Hungarian units between the two camps. 4. The controversial paths and memories of the atrocities against the Jews committed by Hungarian soldiers. The main focus of my study is a comparative analysis on the similarities and differences among the actors’ fragmented contemporary and postwar narratives: the perpetrators, the liberators and the victims on the activities of and killings by the Hungarian soldiers. I analyze ego-documents (interviews, testimonies and other correspondences) of the survivors and perpetrators of digital collections and primarily from the Archives of Gedensktätte Bergen-Belsen and from the Military Archives (Budapest). I also explore the most significant military files as well based on the Archives of the Bergen-Belsen Memorial.

Sociodemographic Factors Are Associated with the Abundance of PFAS Sources and Detection in U.S. Community Water Systems.

Drinking water contaminated by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is a widespread public health concern, and exposure-response relationships are known to vary across sociodemographic groups. However, research on disparities in drinking water PFAS exposures and the siting of PFAS sources in marginalized communities is limited. Here, we use monitoring data from 7873 U.S. community water systems (CWS) in 18 states to show that PFAS detection is positively associated with the number of PFAS sources and proportions of people of color who are served by these water systems. Each additional industrial facility, military fire training area, and airport in a CWS watershed was associated with a 10-108% increase in perfluorooctanoic acid and a 20-34% increase in perfluorooctane sulfonic acid in drinking water. Waste sector sources were also significantly associated with drinking water PFAS concentrations. CWS watersheds with PFAS sources served higher proportions of Hispanic/Latino and non-Hispanic Black residents compared to those without PFAS sources. CWS serving higher proportions of Hispanic/Latino and non-Hispanic Black residents had significantly increased odds of detecting several PFAS. This likely reflects disparities in the siting of PFAS contamination sources. Results of this work suggest that addressing environmental justice concerns should be a component of risk mitigation planning for areas affected by drinking water PFAS contamination.

Khaki conservation: a review of the effects on biodiversity of worldwide military training areas

Military training areas (MTAs) are special environments with specific anthropogenic activities. The aims of this review are (1) to understand the interactions between military training activities and biodiversity, (2) to quantify the available scientific literature on this subject, (3) and to highlight the origin of the studies. Queries were carried out on two literature databases: Scopus and Wiley. The queries returned a large number of papers, but few actually matched the research topics. These two databases contain nearly 400 articles that discuss the interactions between military training and biodiversity at different scales. These articles come from all over the world, but the majority were conducted in the United States. In Europe, the studies are mainly conducted on German, English, and Czech sites. Impacts on biodiversity from all types of military training and from restricted areas were studied. The impacts on these areas are multiple and affect the landscape, the soil, fauna, and flora. They can be directly or indirectly related to military activities. Responses to disturbance by military trainings can be complex as they are variable. Thus, the same training may result in positive, neutral, or negative impacts depending on the habitats or taxa targeted and the country studied. Training methods are constantly evolving and vary between countries, and it appears important to maintain research about conservation in those particular areas, which paradoxically represent opportunities for nature conservation.

Long Distance Military Fiber-Optic Polarization Sensor Improved by an Optical Amplifier

The ever-increasing demands for the use of fiber-optic sensors powered by long optical fibers is forcing developers to solve problems associated with powering these remote sensors. Due to their non-electric character, these sensors are suitable for many uses, including military applications. The Army of the Czech Republic is very interested in this type of optical fiber sensor as it fulfils the significant prerequisites for use in military areas. However, the army’s requirements are challenging because they require long supply cables in which there is significant attenuation of optical power. At the same time, there is a need for high sensitivity. The subject of our research team’s work was to use amplifiers to power these sensors. The army already uses this type of sensor for short distances as it cannot ignite a gas mixture with an explosive concentration and thus meet the strict requirements of the explosion-poof standard. The novelty of our research lies in the discovered measurement technique that allows the sensors to be powered remotely and in the saving of optical fibers by utilizing duplex communication with a circulator. Furthermore, the research presents an innovative approach to the optimization of the entire sensor by using a bidirectional, sensory, polarization-maintaining optical fiber. The proposed sensor was first verified in laboratory conditions at the Optoelectronics Laboratory of the University of Defense in Brno, and further tests were carried out in the military training areas of Boletice and Březina in the Czech Republic, which is a member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

The botany of the Stony Head Training Area: new records for a biodiverse remnant in northern Tasmania, Australia

A flora survey of the Stony Head Training Area, northern Tasmania, was conducted in 2020–2021 as a collaboration between the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery’s Expeditions of Discovery and the Australian Biological Resources Study Bush Blitz programs. With a long historical use as an artillery range, the 5000-ha area contains a range of geologies, has a low profile with average elevations under 100 m asl, and its vegetation consists largely of heathy woodlands and coastal heathlands. It contains a range of relatively undisturbed, high-quality native habitats and populations of several threatened species. The survey targeted vascular plants, bryophytes and lichens, and recorded a total of 575 taxa. Nine lichens are new records for Tasmania — <i>Buellia hypostictella</i>, <i>Caloplaca gilfillaniorum</i>, <i>Cladonia subradiata</i>, <i>Graphis geraensis</i>, <i>Lecanora intumescens</i> and <i>Opegrapha diaphoriza</i> — all previously also known from mainland Australia, and <i>Micarea rhabdogena</i>, <i>M. xanthonica</i> and <i>Pseudothelomma ocellatum</i>, which represent first records for the Southern Hemisphere. Biogeographical and ecological patterns in the flora, the contribution of vegetation remnants to flora conservation, and the ongoing importance of surveys and alpha-taxonomy for documenting biodiversity are discussed. Our findings are consistent with a body of research showing a trend of healthy populations of threatened taxa within military training areas.

Sound propagation for a low height impulsive source over an absorbing ground

Noise contours around military training areas are calculated by using: a) the measured source strength for the impulsive sources and b) the calculated sound propagation using a representative set of meteorological situations. For high-energy impulsive sounds the source strength is measured at distances beyond 100 meters, where peak levels are below 154 dB. A linear model is used to correct for the sound propagation from the source to the measurement position. In this way a linear source strength is determined that can be used with linear sound propagation models. Previous results showed that the source strengths at higher frequencies (above 250 to 500 Hz) were overestimated when the impulsive source is on the ground. Apparently, the calculated sound propagation over an absorbing ground, used to determine the source strength, is accounting for too much ground effect. Note that the actual meteorology and ground absorption are measured during the measurements. In this paper an impulsive reference source is used at two heights and the sound propagation is measured and calculated at increasing distances. It is shown that the measured ground effect saturates for higher frequencies. Next, an unknown impulsive source was measured and the effect of saturation was demonstrated.

Assessment of social vulnerability to forest fire and hazardous facilities in Germany

In recent years, Germany has seen an increase in forest fires, and many fires have occurred in military training areas that are difficult to access for firefighting. While casualties are still low and mostly restricted to firefighting personnel, settlements are also increasingly threatened. Increasing impacts from extreme events due to climate change will likely increase the ignition and spread of fires. More people are being affected by fires, and in need of external help to evacuate and cope with the resulting damages and losses. Forest fires also threaten military training site, with additional risks created by the presence of ammunition depots.Despite this hazard scenario, Germany so far lacks an overview of the spatial occurrence of forest fires and the related risk. This study develops a spatial exposure and social vulnerability assessment of settlements to forest fires in Germany. The results reveal that social vulnerability is an important variable in determining which settlements are potentially exposed to fire. Areas exposed to fire risk are characterised by having a higher proportion of women, a higher-than-average age, a higher number of young people under 18 years, a higher number of persons over 65 years and foreigners than the national average. Furthermore, exposed communities are characterised by higher rates of unoccupied housing units and lower living space per dwelling, as well as living in areas with high population densities within forested areas. The results can help to improve emergency management and spatial planning to prevent the development of fire risk areas.

Unveiling the impact of traditional land practices on natural vegetation using large-scale exclosures: National borders and military bases

Attributing the extent of changes in vegetation cover which are the result of human actions or of climate variability is challenging. The Negev Desert, bordered by two countries and the Palestinian Authority and crossing three climate zones, provides a natural laboratory for unveiling the impact of land practices on natural vegetation. Desert vegetation on both sides of the border was traditionally subject to herds grazing and bush gathering, but in recent decades; grazing policy, military training areas, and nature protection have excluded traditional uses. We used remotely sensed derived proxies of vegetation (the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and surface albedo from satellite images inside and outside of the large exclosures to estimate the anthropogenic impact on vegetation cover in the past four decades, and ultimately isolate the effect of traditional land uses on vegetation cover. Our results showed that the cross-border differences in land use led to a significant impact on vegetation cover outside the exclosed areas. These cross-border differences were more pronounced in the semi-arid - arid climate regions and decreased in the hyper-arid climate region. Exclosures provide a natural experiment which enables us the testing of the factors driving changes in natural vegetation.

The effect of prescribed burning on Pulsatilla vernalis at Marma military training area in Sweden

The effect of prescribed burning on Pulsatilla vernalis at Marma military training area in Sweden

Extinct Settlements and Their Reflection in the Land-Use Changes and Historical Landscape Elements

The paper is aimed at the variability of historical landscape elements on the territory of the selected extinct settlements, to classify and to evaluate their development in the context of changes in anthropic pressure between the years 1945 and 2022, focusing on the Moravian-Silesian Region. The article presents a methodology for identifying physically extinct settlements and historical landscape elements by using statistical data, historical and current maps and field verification. Territorial dispersion and classification according to cases of the extinction, and according to individual landscape elements are elaborated. Research has confirmed a link between the cause of the settlement’s demise: the expulsion of German residents and proximity to the state border, a military training area, the construction of water reservoirs, mining and development projects, and surviving groups of historical landscape elements. The results can serve as a methodology for research in other areas. On a practical level, they can be used for landscape planning, territorial dispersion of tourism, and educational purposes.