Effectiveness Of Military Operations Research Articles

The Importance of Reindeer in Northern Finland during World War II (1939–45) and the Post-War Reconstruction

We studied the consequences of World War II (WWII, 1939–45) for reindeer herding in northern Finland, evaluated the significance of the livelihood for the population during and after the war, and identified the factors that made successful reconstruction of the livelihood possible. The study is based on qualitative content analysis of articles published in the professional journal Poromies (‘Reindeer Herder’) during the period 1931–67. Reindeer were an important source of food, transport, clothing, footwear, and skins for soldiers during the war. Approximately 220 000 reindeer were slaughtered to provide food, averting the compulsory slaughter of 88 000 cows. Herders’ skills were highly valued during the war. The herds and herders figured in the reconstruction of northern Finland and contributed to the war reparations owed the Soviet Union. During the period 1939–45 the number of reindeer fell dramatically, and the cession of Finnish territories to the Soviet Union and destruction of fences made herding difficult. In addition, the area of pastureland available to reindeer decreased. The combined effects of military operations, a labour shortage, an increased number of predators, and difficult weather and snow conditions led to losses of reindeer. The recovery of the livelihood to its pre-war level took 10 years. We argue that in addition to improved post-war pasture conditions—a result of decreased reindeer densities and favourable weather—the rapid recovery of reindeer herding can be attributed to the high motivation, diligence, and experiential knowledge of herders and the herding administration gained in rebuilding the livelihood after WWI (1914–18). Both groups understood that in northern Finland it would be economically wiser to invest in reindeer husbandry rather than cattle farming since reindeer are better adapted than cattle to the harsh climate and to forage grown in low-productive soils. Reindeer herding was based on natural pastures and labour, whereas cattle farming relied on crop cultivation, as well as expensive buildings, machinery, and fertilizers.

Effect of Long-term Elite Military Training and Operations on Hormonal Profile

Chronic exposure to multifactorial stress, such as that endured by elite military operators, may lead to overtraining syndrome and negatively impact hormonal regulation. In acute settings (<6 mos), military training has been shown to lead to hormonal dysfunction; however, less is known about the consequences of long-term military training. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to determine the chronic effects of military operations and training on the hormone profile of elite military operators. METHODS: Active-duty elite US military operators (n = 65, age = 29.8 ± 1.0 yrs, height = 178.4 ± 0.7 cm, weight = 85.1 ± 2.0 kg) concomitantly engaged in rigorous physical training were recruited to participate in the study. Basal plasma concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH), total testosterone (TT), free testosterone (FT), sex-hormone binding globulin (SHBG), cortisol, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), triiodothyronine (T3), and thyroxine (T4) were obtained between 0600-1000 hrs. Data were analyzed for correlations and compared against normative reference values; all data are presented as mean ± SE. RESULTS: Mean LH, TT, FT, SHBG, cortisol, TSH, T3, and T4 for all subjects were: 3.4 ± 0.2 IU · L-1, 13.5 ± 0.9 nmol · L-1, 28.2 ± 1.2 pmol · L-1, 94.2 ± 6.4 nmol · L-1, 441.3 ± 26.4 nmol · L-1, 3.5 ± 0.7 mIU · L-1, 150 ± 9.0 ng · dL-1, and 7.8 ± 0.2 μg · dL-1, respectively. There was a significant positive correlation between TT and cortisol (R2 = 0.07; y = 0.0093x + 9.4364; P < 0.05). In addition, 43% of the participants (n = 28) had TT below age-based normative reference ranges. Those with lower than normal TT (8.2 ± 0.3 vs. 17.6 ± 1.3 nmol· L-1; P < 0.01), also had lower FT (24.4 ± 1.9 vs. 31.1 ± 1.4 pmol · L-1, P < 0.01), cortisol (367.4 ± 39.1 vs 497.2 ± 33.2 nmol· L-1; P < 0.05) and T3 (121.1 ± 5.4 vs. 164.0 ± 14.3 ng · dL-1; P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: These results indicate that military operations and training may place a large burden on the operators and depress or alter the hypothalamic pituitary, adrenal, gonadal and thyroid axes. Further research need be conducted to determine what, if any, consequences these differences may cause.

On the Secure and Reconfigurable Multi-Layer Network Design for Critical Information Dissemination in the Internet of Battlefield Things (IoBT)

The Internet of things (IoT) is revolutionizing the management and control of automated systems leading to a paradigm shift in areas such as smart homes, smart cities, health care, transportation, etc. The IoT technology is also envisioned to play an important role in improving the effectiveness of military operations in battlefields. The interconnection of combat equipment and other battlefield resources for coordinated automated decisions is referred to as the Internet of battlefield things (IoBT). IoBT networks are significantly different from traditional IoT networks due to battlefield specific challenges such as the absence of communication infrastructure, heterogeneity of devices, and susceptibility to cyber-physical attacks. The combat efficiency and coordinated decision-making in war scenarios depends highly on real-time data collection, which in turn relies on the connectivity of the network and information dissemination in the presence of adversaries. This work aims to build the theoretical foundations of designing secure and reconfigurable IoBT networks. Leveraging the theories of stochastic geometry and mathematical epidemiology, we develop an integrated framework to quantify the information dissemination among heterogeneous network devices. Consequently, a tractable optimization problem is formulated that can assist commanders in cost effectively planning the network and reconfiguring it according to the changing mission requirements.

The Copenhagen Process: Principles and Guidelines on the Handling of Detainees in International Military Operations

The Copenhagen Process Principles and Guidelines on the Handling of Detainees in International Military Operations are intended to contribute both to the humane treatment of detainees and the effectiveness of military operations. This article seeks to stimulate discussion concerning the Principles and Guidelines. It also provides the international community with a better understanding of a very successful process for developing normative standards or soft law. Finally, it explains some of the main issues dealt with during the Process, and some of the key aspects of the provisions contained in the Principles and Guidelines.

Influence of contemporary military doctrines and strategies upon efficiency and effectiveness of military operations

The paper defines and analyses contemporary military doctrines and strategies and their influence upon efficiency and effectiveness of military operations. After the introduction, the following significant points of influence of contemporary doctrines and strategies upon efficiency and effectiveness of military operations are described: (1) concept, characteristics and types of military operations; (2) contemporary war doctrines and strategies in the world; (3) implications of military technology development and war doctrine upon financial aspects of a modern operation; (4) an example of financing the security and defensive military operations (Athena), and (5) financing the costs of the Serbian Armed Forces' contribution to multi-national operations. The last part of the paper presents short conclusions reached after the consideration of this very complex and specific topic of influence of military doctrines and strategies upon efficiency and effectiveness of military operations.

P1-89 Military populations, military diseases: the development of military epidemiology

IntroductionIn the mid 19th century, military health protection began to be informed by epidemiology. This paper examines the development of military epidemiology and its impact on military health policy.MethodsHistorical material...

Statistical Verification of Experimental Tests to Determine Geographical Positions of Objects

Statistical Verification of Experimental Tests to Determine Geographical Positions of Objects The article describes statistical methods of verification of measurements taken to determine geographical position of a single soldier on a battlefield using the latest GPS satellite techniques. The GPS system allows of considerable improvement in effectiveness of military operations owing to its capabilities to provide precise location of either the whole organizational unit or a single soldier, and precise time. What has been gained from experimental tests are sets of tables with, among other elements, geographic coordinates to express location (longitude and latitude), and altitude.

The Development of Theory-Driven Evaluation in the Military

The use of theory-driven evaluation is an emerging practice in the military—an aspect generally unknown in the civilian evaluation community. First developed during the 1991 Gulf War and applied in both the Balkans and Afghanistan, these techniques are now being examined in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) as a means to evaluate the effects of military operations in complex, asymmetric conflict environments. In spite of these practices, theory-driven evaluation in the military is still in the developmental stages. This article traces the development to date of theory-driven evaluation in NATO and assesses its strengths and weaknesses in the military context. We conclude that a cross-pollination of ideas between military and civilian evaluators is urgently needed to improve the quality and effectiveness of military evaluation.

Commercial Speech Recognition Technology in the Military Domain: Results of Two Recent Research Efforts

While speech recognition technology has long held the potential for improving the effectiveness of military operations, it has only been within the last several years that speech systems have enabled the realization of that potential. Commercial speech recognition technology developments aimed at improving robustness for automotive and cellular phone applications have capabilities that can be exploited in various military systems. This paper discusses the results of two research efforts directed toward applying commercial-off-the-shelf speech recognition technology in the military domain. The first effort discussed is the development and evaluation of a speech recognition interface to the Theater Air Planning system responsible for the generation of air tasking orders in a military Air Operations Center. The second effort examined the utility of speech versus conventional manual input for tasks performed by operators in an unmanned aerial vehicle control station simulator. Both efforts clearly demonstrate the military benefits obtainable from the proper application of speech technology.

Commercial Speech Recognition Technology in the Military Domain: Results of Two Recent Research Efforts

While speech recognition technology has long held the potential for improving the effectiveness of military operations, it has only been within the last several years that speech systems have enabled the realization of that potential. Commercial speech recognition technology developments aimed at improving robustness for automotive and cellular phone applications have capabilities that can be exploited in various military systems. This paper discusses the results of two research efforts directed toward applying commercial-off-the-shelf speech recognition technology in the military domain. The first effort discussed is the development and evaluation of a speech recognition interface to the Theater Air Planning system responsible for the generation of air tasking orders in a military Air Operations Center. The second effort examined the utility of speech versus conventional manual input for tasks performed by operators in an unmanned aerial vehicle control station simulator. Both efforts clearly demonstrate the military benefits obtainable from the proper application of speech technology.

Modern War, Modern Law, and Army Doctrine: Are We in Step for the 21st Century?

Our first problem was with using suppressive fires against the air defense. According to standard Army procedure, we simply estimated where the enemy air defense might be, based on the terrain and the force's operating pattern. But the Defense Department's lawyers insisted that before we shoot at these locations, they had to be 'observed,' that is, not 'templated.' ... By the lawyers' definition, someone would have to view Serb air defenses through photography or TV within a few hours of the time the artillery was to be fired. This was a requirement derived from the NATO Rules of Engagement that had been approved for the operation, without regard to the kinds of needs we might have for the Apaches.... Before we could shoot our suppression, we would have to have visibility over what was there, updated to the last few hours.... The commander would either have to accept the risk from other untargeted [templated] locations, or call off the planned mission. Surely there had to be a better way. Never had we imposed such a standard on ourselves. There had to be a misunderstanding, I thought. (1) --General Wesley K. Clark, USA Ret., concerning legal constraints to suppressive fires in support of AH-64 operations in Kosovo To most of the US Army, the work of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) has little bearing on their pursuits in the profession of arms. Images of genocide, ethnic cleansing, and mass murder, while terrible in their own context, are not the types of crimes to which the men and women of the US armed forces would potentially be a party. Thus, while the US government supports the work of the tribunal as a matter of policy, the findings of the court, beyond the occasional headline, are simply not of interest to US military professionals. That is a mistake. In fact, when examining current tactical and operational Army doctrine in light of the work of the ICTY, it becomes evident that in some areas, commanders may not have the doctrinal tools or appropriate training mechanisms available to steer clear of potential criminal culpability in future conflicts. Over the past several years, the Office of the Prosecutor has moved forward in exploring the legal basis of a criminal charge frequently referred to as unlawful attack. (2) These issues pertain to the legal review of the conduct of military operations that affect the surrounding civilian population (or associated nonmilitary objects). It examines the obligations of military commanders and other combatants under the 1949 Geneva Conventions, the 1977 Additional Protocols, and a broad body of international humanitarian law designed to safeguard civilians and other noncombatants. In select recent cases, these reviews have resulted in the indictment, apprehension, and conviction of operational commanders for violations of these conventions. It is still premature to postulate how these trials and judgments might affect future US Army tactical and operational commanders, particularly with respect to the conduct of ground operations. However, on the basis of information that is in the public domain, it is clear is that there are increasing expectations by the international community that military commanders be held to stricter standards of accountability with regard to making informed decisions on ground operations and target selection. As such, the jurisprudence coming out of the ICTY is likely to raise the bar for commanders to adequately justify the effects of military operations on the surrounding civilian populations and objects. These future effects will not be limited to only the traditional restrictions defined in US Army Field Manual (FM) 27-10, Laws of Land Warfare, but also will include more recent legal criteria pertaining to the issues of proportionality, dual-use infrastructure, terror, and even environmental damage. (3) In contrast, Army operational and tactical doctrine in the fields of reconnaissance, intelligence, and fire-support remain heavily biased toward the rapid, accurate, and overwhelming application of force or fires on the enemy target or objective, often coupled with the least possible risk to friendly troops and assets. …