Military Defeat Research Articles

The Latvian Lost Cause: Veterans of the Waffen-SS Latvian Legion and Post-war Mythogenesis

During World War II, tens of thousands of Latvians served in German-led military formations, primarily in the Waffen-SS Latvian Legion. After the war, around 25,000 former Legionnaires transitioned from prisoner of war camps run by the Western Allies to civilian life in a variety of Western countries. They created veterans’ organisations — such as Daugavas Vanagi (‘Hawks of the Daugava’) — which also functioned as political advocacy groups and heritage organisations for the Latvian diaspora. These post-war organisations and platforms then allowed former Latvian Legionnaires to shape public memory of the war. In writings after 1945, a cohort of veterans crafted a narrative of the war that (1) presents their military service as representing a righteous cause defeated either by forms of betrayal or by the overwhelming might of the Soviet Union, (2) develops a cult of the fallen soldier, and (3) mystifies German war aims and the relationship of Latvian Legionnaires to them. Through analysis of memoirs and periodical publications by veterans along with forms of public commemoration, I argue that these materials and practices collectively constitute a ‘Lost Cause’ narrative, which, similar to the Lost Cause of the Confederacy — developed in the U.S. South after the American Civil War — became predominant among the Latvian diaspora before spreading to Latvia itself. This framework allows for productive comparisons with other European countries that experienced traumatic military defeats, representing a new approach to this controversial subject with potential application to similar cases in Ukraine and Estonia.

Britain’s Last Colonial War

Abstract The United Kingdom fought its last colonial war in South Arabia (1963 t0 1967) during a pivotal era of waning economic strength, rising Arab nationalism, and growing anticolonialism. Determined to retain Britain’s international status, the Macmillan government considered military facilities in Aden essential to projecting power east of Suez. This article argues that policy decisions taken from 1937 onwards increased the likelihood of a nationalist insurgency and made countering it at an acceptable cost extraordinarily difficult. The British never devised a comprehensive strategy, responding to threats on an ad hoc basis. Contrary to what some scholars insist, South Arabia neither confirmed the failure of the British approach nor heralded a new era of counterinsurgency. The conflict was a political failure, not a military defeat.

The Dardanians and the Origin of the So-Called “Macedonian Phalanx”

Abstract The Macedonian phalanx, invented by Philip II, is considered to have been a pikeman-phalanx. However, a detailed analysis has shown that the full pikeman-phalanx must have been a later military innovation which was introduced at the beginning of Antigonus Dōsōn’s reign. Before this, the phalanx can only have been one of spearmen, although it is probable that the rear ranks were already armed with pikes. Following a deeper investigation, and taking into consideration forgotten archaeological material from Bosnia-Herzegovina, this article argues that this reform of the Macedonian heavy infantry’s armament occurred as a consequence of Demetrius II’s major military defeat in a pitched battle against the Dardanians in 229 BC.

The Sinhala‐Buddhicization of the state and the rise of authoritarianism in Sri Lanka

AbstractSri Lanka's postindependence history suggests that continuous efforts by the Sinhala‐Buddhist politicians to reject decentralization created anxiety and distrust among minorities. The state used both Sinhala language and Buddhism to accommodate Sinhala‐Buddhist interests and provide cultural security to Sinhala‐Buddhists who feared that the Sinhala race, Buddhism, and heritage would be threatened with destruction by the Tamil and Muslim separatists and extremists. The state forced the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), which demanded a separate state for North and Eastern Tamils, to silence its guns in May 2009. The military defeat of the LTTE did not produce any democratization of the island. Sinhala‐Buddhist extremist forces turned their eyes on Sri Lankan Muslims, whose elites attached to major political parties supported the war against the LTTE. This study examines the politicization of the Sinhala language and Buddhism in Sri Lanka before and after the civil war between the LTTE and the state dominated by the Sinhala‐Buddhists. It argues that Sinhala political elites willingly took measures to centralize power. The major result of centralization is the birth of the state‐seeking, but authoritarian LTTE. It will also provide some useful analysis to examine post‐war tensions between the Muslims and the Sinhala‐Buddhist extremists. Finally, I discuss some solutions to fight the rising authoritarianism to help Sri Lanka enjoy the fruits of modernization and democracy.

‘It is only by political means that we can hope for … success’: Éamon de Valera’s long climb back to power, 1922–32

ABSTRACT In January 1922, Éamon de Valera lost the leadership of Irish nationalism. In opposing the Treaty signed in London the previous month, he painted himself into a corner, committing himself to oppose the settlement, to refuse to recognise the Irish Free State, and never to take the Oath of Allegiance required to enter the Dáil. This position precluded the political path which was the only course available after the military defeat of the anti-Treaty cause. If de Valera was to have a political future, he would have to find a way to retreat from this stance, while maintaining the support of as many anti-Treatyites as possible and widening his electoral appeal beyond that minority. His tactical withdrawal would take a decade, featuring the rebirth of Sinn Féin as an anti-Treaty electoral party, the formation of Fianna Fáil as a movement more amenable to his control, and acceptance of the oath to enter the Free State Dáil. The long climb back to political power culminated with his election as President of the Executive Council in March 1932. He had not only secured his own political future; he had helped establish a political system which would endure for eight decades.

Military affairs in the Golden Horde and Turan: a comparative analysis

The purpose of the article is a historical reconstruction of the most important components of the military affairs of the Golden Horde and Turan, their comparative analysis, establishment of common features and differences, as well as clarification of the social and military-technical reasons that led to the military defeat and subsequent decline of Ulus Juchi. The research methodology, in addition to observing the principles of objectivity and historicism, consisted in the consistent application of the historical comparative method, its heuristic, analytical, descriptive functions and the function of identifying borrowings and influences. The scientific novelty is contained in the systematic application of a comparative analysis of the military affairs in Ulus Juchi and in the state of Timur, revealing the effectiveness of transfers and durability of elements of the military art of the Mongolian and Turkic ethnic communities. Conclusions. The author has found the military affairs of the Genghisids to be based on Mongolian military traditions and experience. Decimal system and the left-right arms and the center structuring underlay the military organization of the countries. Golden Horde and Ulus Chagatai preserved general military duty. Mobilization resource comprised hundreds of thousands of prepared warriors called horse-soldiers. The paper has identified that the would-be reinforcement training was naturally held in professional and living environments of the Nomads. It was battue hunting that played a significant role in military organization and tactics. The armies of Golden Horde and Turan consisted of light and heavily armed cavalry. The article has demonstrated that the Tymur’s infantry was of great importance and performed special vital urgent tasks but supporting role. Being a general, Tymur among the followers of Mongolian war principal was the first to take notice of the new tendency in military affairs. The army of Golden Horden was proved to successfully know the Nomads’ basic tactical techniques – “round dance”, “crow’s flock”, “shiuchi” and “tulgam”. “Tulgama” known as bypassing the enemy from one or two flanks and getting behind his lines when battling, was the most effective tactical military instrument of the Genghisids states. The Turan army lead by Tymur, was able to contrast “tulgama” with their own organizational and tactical innovations. Tymur covered cavalry corps of the left and right arms were by “canbulas” – protective corps with the number no less than the main divisions. Their clear task included to prevent the enemy’s cavalry from going around from the flanks. They fought together with the vanguard corps. The most important Tymur’s innovation was introducing a powerful rearguard – a corps of patches of twenty koshuns. Unlike the Golden Horde warriors, Tymur enriched the Mongolian art of war with systemic use of reserves. The paper has found that military organization of Golden Horde and Turan was tightly connected with the social structure. In the middle of the 14th century Ulus Dzhuchi survived the political crises “Great Confusion” that provoked increasing of centrifugal motion. After political anarchy, uluses were assigned to the Juchid clans. Bekliarbek (a stoker) position creation was a sign of feudalization and central power weakening in Golden Horde. The way Khan Tokhtamysh had distributed suurgals (patches) in order to increase the number of his adherents, didn’t bring power consolidation, but loose it contrariwise. In the Tokhtamysh army it was revealed with commanders (oglans and beks) betrayal. The Tymur’s state was in the ascendancy; allowance of uluses and suurgals was developed with establishing clear and definite military duties. Feudalization tendency hadn’t appeared clearly in Turan yet. That lead to more solidarity and motivation of the Tymur’s army in his resistance with Tokhtamysh.

Studying Disaster in Late Antiquity

This introduction frames a collection of four papers, originally presented at the 13th Shifting Frontiers in Late Antiquity conference, that examine late antique episcopal responses to disaster, typically military defeats caused by the barbarians. To contextualize what follows, this essay begins by introducing various ways disaster researchers define disaster, as well as the related concepts of hazard and vulnerability. The paper also examines several terminological and methodological challenges associated with the application of modern disaster studies to the ancient world. Importantly, disasters cannot be separated from their social context. Indeed, thinking of disasters as social phenomena encourages historians to look beyond the disaster events themselves, to consider why and how those in power reacted (or failed to react) and what the experience was like for the individuals who lived through them. Finally, this essay serves as an argument against the simplistic association of the period of Late Antiquity with disaster.

Diplomacy in the context of escalating challenges and threats in world politics

The article reflects the most important factors determining the effectiveness of Russian diplomacy in the context of new challenges and threats associated with the development of processes of escalation of tension in the international situation. The relevance of the article is determined by Washington’s intensifi ed desire for dominance in the escalation of military and non-military methods of pressure on Moscow in order to achieve its stated geopolitical goals, the priority of which is inflicting strategic military defeat on Russia, fragmentation and destruction of our country.The novelty of the article lies in the author’s attempt to explore the vectors of development of the military-political situation in Ukraine in the direction of both vertical and horizontal escalation. Based on the analysis of the results obtained, the author substantiates the need for a signifi cant revision of the curricula of Russian universities in order to adapt them to the military-political realities of our time.

ФОРМИРОВАНИЕ ЗАПАДНОГО ФРОНТА ВЕЛИКОЙ ВОЙНЫ 1914–1918 гг. ЧАСТЬ II. ВООРУЖЕННАЯ БОРЬБА

The article presents an analysis of the operational-strategic deployment of the armed forces of the German army in the fist months of the Great war, the formation of french strike groups, the position 
 of neutrality of the belgian leadership and the reasons for England's entry into the war. The general nature of the battles is revealed in two battles – the battles for Liege and the attack on Alsace and Lorraine. 
 It is emphasized that the success of the battle is determined not by the quality of the fortress walls, but by the technical power of the army and the number of soldiers. It is concluded that the results of the first battles on the Western front indicate that peace is possible only after the complete military defeat of one 
 of the sides.

World Literature and Defeat

This essay underscores the importance of seeking refuge in literary aesthetics by arguing that Goethe’s concept of world literature was formulated in compensation for the shock of military defeat, political collapse, and foreign occupation. The refugee became a figure of identification in Goethe’s writing in the 1790s and his Orientalist Nachdichtungen. The Goethean mode of reading distant literatures entails identifying with other writers who are often already marginalized within their own cultures. This manner of engaging with non-European texts refuses to establish a pantheon of great works precisely because it relies on a writerly interest in rediscovering one’s own identity by reading foreign literature from a position of insecurity and weakness. The goal of reading is always the reconstruction of the self through a strange text. With its eagerness to establish a monumental cultural figure, the nineteenth and early twentieth-century canon marginalized precisely those unGerman texts in which Goethe most effectively dismantled his own authorial status. Only with the demise of colonial empires and the defeat of Nazi Germany did a more modest, anti-hegemonic mode of reading remerge.

МАГНІТНО-МІНЕРАЛОГІЧНІ ВЛАСТИВОСТІ ҐРУНТІВ КИЇВЩИНИ, УРАЖЕНИХ ВІЙСЬКОВИМИ ДІЯМИ

Background. One of the dangerous effects on the environment caused by the military actions in Ukraine is the destruction of the soil. This includes its pollution, redistribution of genetic horizons, compaction, change of physical and chemical agronomic indicators, etc. Accumulated experience shows that most of these processes are reflected in the magnetic properties of soils. Methods. The applied magnetic method includes a full range of field and laboratory studies. More detailed magnetic mineralogical methods of measurements are described in. Results. On the basis of the diagram developed for the ratios of anhysteretic magnetic susceptibility to low-frequency magnetic susceptibility (χARM/χlf) and anhysteretic magnetic susceptibility to the frequency dependence of magnetic susceptibility (χARM/χfd), fine-grained magnetic particles of lithogenic and bacterial origin were detected in the soils of experimental areas of Kyiv region. For Stari Petrivtsi, only one group of samples was mainly identified. In Demydiv, we found two groups: a larger one, marked in green, and a smaller one, marked in red. Finally, two equivalent groups were identified in the Ozera study site. According to the results of the thermomagnetic analysis of magnetic susceptibility, an unusual "tail" for soils was identified after 600 °C, which indicates the content of metallic iron. The content of heavy metals in the magnetic extraction of soils from objects of military defeat depends on the composition of the alloys of the weapons striking a specific place. Conclusions. During the explosion of various types of ammunition, fragments of irregular shape are formed due to strong mechanical impact, and additional heating in the process leads to the formation of iron spherules. This complex physico-chemical process occurs as a result of the interaction of high-temperature gases, dust and molten metal. These objects are successfully identified by quick and cheap magnetic methods.

Jihad after the Fall of IS – Reframing the Apocalyptic Narrative

This study analyzes the use of apocalyptic frames by jihadist groups and how they have been developing after the fall of IS. It contextualizes these developments in the history of Muslim apocalyptic though and literature. After describing the apocalyptic narrative in the hadith literature and in the Quran, as well as the differences between classical and modern apocalyptic literature, the study analyzes differences in how jihadist groups have used apocalyptic framing of their fight. Finally, using interview data, the study analyzes how the Salafi-jihadist environment in Sweden has started to reframe the apocalyptic narrative after the military defeat of IS.

The End of the Old France. <i>Book Review of ‘From Triumph to Disaster: Political and Military Defeat of France in 1940 and Its Origins’ by A.A. Vershinin and N.N. Naumova</i>

The book under review is a new monograph by A.A. Vershinin and N.N. Naumova ‘From triumph to disaster: Political and military defeat of France in 1940 and its origins’, published in 2022. In order to separate myth from reality and restore, as far as possible, an accurate picture of those tragic events, the authors of the monograph under review turn to a wide array of sources — ranging from memoirs of direct participants to archival documents from various countries. They also thoroughly examined the works of both classic and contemporary researches on the military and political history of France. A.A. Vershinin and N.N. Naumova provide an exceptionally detailed picture of the main political, social, military, cultural and ideological reasons that provoked the defeat of the French army. The authors debunk the popular myth that this defeat allegedly resulted from a shortage of military equipment. They show instead that it was caused by a complex of factors: instability of the Third Republic’s regime, contradictions between political parties, strategic miscalculations of the military and politicians. The authors stress that the defeat of France, which allowed the Third Reich to take a dominant position in Europe, became an important milestone in the history of international relations. According to the reviewer, A.A. Vershinin and N.N. Naumova rightly conclude that the old France, which once determined the fate of the world, perished in May-June 1940 in the battles of the Meuse and Dunkirk.

I Trends on Democratic Erosion: The Role Of Agency And Sequencing

Democratic erosion has become the main path of movement away from democracy since 1990. Distinct from abrupt breakdowns like coups d’état, executive coups, military defeat, or foreign invasions, the erosion of democratic systems occurs as a gradual and incremental process, driven by legally elected incumbents and by legal means (or by upholding the façade of legal means). These incumbents are change agents who deliberately and actively endeavor to dismantle the democratic rules of the game. This text addresses some still unsolved but highly relevant conceptual issues in the ongoing research of democratic erosion: the delineation between democratic erosion and loss of democratic quality and the delineation between democratic erosion and autocratization. Moreover, the article focuses on two main features of democratic erosion — agency and incrementality — and suggests a model for the sequencing of democratic erosion.

The Netherlands and the prosecution and trial of Islamic State suspects in Rojava

After the military defeat of the Islamic State (IS) in Syria and Iraq, the challenge of dealing with foreign IS fighters emerged, with many of them being held in detention facilities under the jurisdiction of the Autonomous Administration in North and East Syria. Yet, indecisiveness and unwillingness of the anti-IS collation to establish a mechanism for the actual prosecuting and trying of IS suspects has raised significant concerns, as it could potentially lead to the re-emergence of the organization. This article delves into the Netherlands' efforts to explore potential collaborations with the Autonomous Administration in North and East Syria for prosecuting and trying IS suspects. The data for this article was obtained through a Freedom of Information Act (Wet Openbaar Bestuur, WOB) request. The documents, spanning from 2018 to 2021, reveal that more than just international law, political considerations played a significant role in hindering the implementation of cooperation with the authorities in the Autonomous Administration in North and East Syria.

Hydro-heritage for healing? Examining the gendered experience of water in post-conflict Swat, Pakistan

Water has been formulated as a resource or a hazard within water resources geography. We propose that reframing of water as hydro-heritage opens up richer analytical possibilities for examining the pluriverses and multiple ontologies that animate gendered experience of water. We are concerned with how hydro-heritage has or could have contributed to healing in the post-conflict Swat valley of Pakistan. We highlight how the Taliban insurgency and the reconstruction following its military defeat displaced people's worlds of meaning in Swat. We find that the pre-conflict mountain springs were a site for an enchanted affective encounter between humans and non-humans, where a multifaceted gendered experience of water was enacted. The developmental imaginaries of the Pakistan state in the post-conflict reconstruction phase and the accompanying social changes deracinated water and springs from their pluriversal moorings towards ‘modern water’ with damaging material and emotional consequences for the people of Swat. This was particularly pronounced in terms of gendered access to water, health and mobility. We suggest that water as hydro-heritage has the potential to heal, provided people's worlds of meaning and experience of water are recentred in developmental imaginaries.

“The Forgotten People:” Analyzing the Invisible, Intersectional Discrimination Against Metis Women

The Metis is a group of indigenous peoples in Canada. Having experienced centuries of injustices, beginning with colonialism dating back to the 16th century, culminating with military defeats in the 1800s and the establishment of residential schools, and continuing with structural injustices in the 21st century, Metis people have long been, and continue to be marginalized and made invisible in the Canadian society. In particular, Metis women born between 1997 and 2012 face intersectional discrimination based on not only race, but also a multitude of identity factors, including gender, age, geographical location, health, sexual orientation, and lateral violence from First Nations peoples. The multilayered oppression against young Metis women is made invisible to mainstream society, which can be explained by several theories, including color-blind racism, collective shame, lack of understanding of intersectionality, and Mauvaise foi (bad faith). To address the invisible, intersectional discrimination against young Metis women, several suggestions and possibilities could be considered. These include amending the education system, fostering group affiliation, bringing structural changes to federal policies and funding system, and cooperating with other indigenous nations such as First Nations and Inuit to constitute a stronger social power.

Christianity and The Indigenous Spiritualties of The Igbo People: From Multi-Religiousness to Synculturation

The Igbo people of Nigeria have historically maintained a rich and dynamic spiritual tradition. The advent of Christianity introduced new dimensions to their spiritual landscape, leading to significant shifts in religious beliefs and practices. This study aims to explore the complexities and transformations in the Igbo spiritual landscape following the encounter with Christianity. It seeks to understand how the Igbo people navigate the coexistence of indigenous spirituality and Christian beliefs, and the resultant socio-cultural and religious dynamics. Employing a literature review and historical analysis, this study systematically examines scholarly works and historical records to unravel the complex interplay between Igbo indigenous spirituality and Christianity. The study found that the Igbo's flexibility in spiritual choices facilitated their rapid conversion to Christianity, influenced by practical advantages such as effective medicine, economic benefits, and efficient foreign social structures. However, this transition also entailed a mental shift, marked by the perception of the Christian God's superiority following military defeats against foreigners. The study highlights the intricate interplay between indigenous spiritualities and Christianity within the Igbo context. It underscores the role of practical factors, cultural adaptation, and perceived spiritual efficacy in shaping religious transformations. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of religious syncretism and the evolving nature of spiritual beliefs in multi-religious societies.

HISTORICAL ANALYSIS THE SERVICES OF THE KOPRULU FAMILY TO THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

The koprulu era (1656- 1703) was a period in which the Ottoman Empire’s politics were frequently dominated by a series of grand viziers from the koprulu family. The koprulu era is sometimes more narrowly defined as the period from 1653- 1683, as it was during those years that members of the family held the office of grand vizier uninterruptedly, while for the remainder of the period they occupied it only sporadically. The koprulu household, the most powerful vizierial household in the seventieth century, this article sheds light on the efficiency of the koprulu households. Thanks to their long-lasting incumbency. The koprulu grand viziers managed to establish a large network stretching from the provinces to the central bureaucracy. The koprulu were generally skilled administrators, and are credited with reviving the empire’s fortunes after a period of military defeat and economic instability. Numerous reforms were instituted under their rule, which enabled the empire to resolve its budget crises and stamp out factional conflict in the empire.

Evolution of Ivorian Popular Front in the Political System of Côte d’Ivoire

The matter of political leadership in West African countries affected by conflicts and instability is significant in terms of its institutionalisation through political parties and organisations. The article seeks to examine the extent to which the formal political structure and functioning of a party reflect the actual political organisation mechanisms enacted in the fragile institutional environment in the context of civil wars, interethnic violence based on the case of Côte d’Ivoire, especially in the wake of the Ivorian Civil War of 2002-2011. A particular political organisation under examination is the Ivorian Popular Front, created by the former Ivorian President Laurent Gbagbo and the ruling party in Côte d’Ivoire in 2000-2011. A special attention in the framework of this analysis is drawn to the issue of the ethnic and tribal basis of the political party emergence and the significance of this ethnic (religious, regional or any other identity-based) agenda for further development of the political force and its practical operations. Further analysis is devoted to the role of a leader, in this case, Laurent Gbagbo, and the formal and informal patronage networks that emerge surrounding him, the way his political choices reflect identity-based agenda or his personalised interests. Limitations imposed by a political force in a conflict-ridden West African environment are examined both in conditions of control of power over the state and after its loss. A separate question addressed is the matter of a party’s ability to exist without being a dominant political force and a strong connection to the person of its founder and is there an opportunity for a political force that suffered a severe military defeat to return to prominence.