Mild Respiratory Disease Research Articles

Pathogen delivery route impacts disease severity in experimental Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae infection of domestic lambs

M. ovipneumoniae is a respiratory pathogen that can cause mild to moderate pneumonia and reduced productivity in domestic lambs. However, studies on both natural and experimental M. ovipneumoniae infection have reported highly variable clinical signs and pathology. Here, we assessed the impact of administering M. ovipneumoniae to the upper respiratory tract (URT) or to the lower respiratory tract (LRT) of two-month-old specific pathogen-free lambs. Lambs were inoculated with PBS (control) or with ceftiofur-treated nasal wash fluid obtained from sheep with natural M. ovipneumoniae infection, monitored for eight weeks, and subsequently euthanized. All lambs in the URT and LRT groups developed a stable infection with M. ovipneumoniae. M. ovipneumoniae infection led to lower weight gains and mild respiratory disease, with significantly greater effects following LRT inoculation compared to URT inoculation. At necropsy, lambs inoculated via the LRT showed consolidation of the cranial lung lobes. In addition, histological signs of alveolar, bronchiolar, and interstitial inflammation were significantly more severe in the LRT compared to the URT group. M. ovipneumoniae loads in the trachea and bronchi also were significantly higher after LRT than URT inoculation. Interestingly, 9/10 inoculated lambs also tested positive for M. haemolytica in nasal swab but not in bronchial swab samples. In summary, our study suggests that bypassing protective mechanisms of the URT by delivering respiratory pathogens to the LRT leads to more severe respiratory disease and lung damage than delivery to the URT.

Differential Immunological Responses of Adult Domestic and Bighorn Sheep to Inoculation with Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae Type Strain Y98

Bighorn sheep (BHS) populations have been reported to experience high levels of morbidity and mortality following infection with Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae. This contrasts with the subclinical presentation in domestic sheep (DS). Understanding this difference requires baseline knowledge of pre- and post-infection immune responses of both species. The present study identifies differences in leukocyte phenotypes between adult BHS and DS before and after intranasal inoculation with 1 × 108 Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae. Prior to inoculation, BHS were confirmed to have a higher abundance of leukocyte CD14 and serum concentrations of IL-36RA. In contrast, DS had a higher leukocyte abundance of CD16 in addition to previously observed integrin markers and CD172a, as well as greater serum TNF-α concentrations. Within 15 days of inoculation, BHS displayed signs of mild respiratory disease and M. ovipneumoniae DNA was detected on nasal swabs using a quantitative PCR; meanwhile, DS exhibited few to no clinical signs and had levels of M. ovipneumoniae DNA below the standard curve threshold. Immunologic markers remained relatively consistent pre- and post-inoculation in DS, while BHS demonstrated changes in the peripheral leukocyte expression of CD172a and CD14. Circulating serum IL-36RA decreased and CXCL10 increased within BHS. These findings highlight significant differences in cellular immunity between BHS and DS, raised and housed under similar conditions, prior to and following inoculation with M. ovipneumoniae.

Surveillance of Human Adenovirus Types and the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Reporting - United States, 2017-2023.

Human adenoviruses (HAdVs) are typically associated with mild respiratory illnesses, although severe disease and outbreaks in congregate settings occur. The National Adenovirus Type Reporting System (NATRS) is a passive, laboratory-based surveillance system that monitors trends in circulation of HAdV types in the United States. This report summarizes the distribution of HAdV types reported to NATRS during 2017-2023. During this 7-year period, 2,241 HAdV specimens with typing results were reported to NATRS. The number of specimens with HAdV typing results reported varied annually during 2017-2019 (range=389-562) and declined during 2020-2023 (range=58-356). During 2017-2023, six HAdV types (1-4, 7, and 14) accounted for 88.3% of typed specimens reported; 17.0% of specimens were identified as outbreak-related. An increase in type 41 reporting was associated with a hepatitis cluster during 2021-2022. Reporting to NATRS has declined since the COVID-19 pandemic, despite continued HAdV circulation reported through passive laboratory surveillance to the National Respiratory and Enteric Virus Surveillance System. Enhanced participation in NATRS is needed to improve monitoring of circulating HAdV types.

The Nucleocapsid (N) Proteins of Different Human Coronaviruses Demonstrate a Variable Capacity to Induce the Formation of Cytoplasmic Condensates.

To date, seven human coronaviruses (HCoVs) have been identified. Four of these viruses typically manifest as a mild respiratory disease, whereas the remaining three can cause severe conditions that often result in death. The reasons for these differences remain poorly understood, but they may be related to the properties of individual viral proteins. The nucleocapsid (N) protein plays a crucial role in the packaging of viral genomic RNA and the modification of host cells during infection, in part due to its capacity to form dynamic biological condensates via liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS). In this study, we investigated the capacity of N proteins derived from all HCoVs to form condensates when transiently expressed in cultured human cells. Some of the transfected cells were observed to contain cytoplasmic granules in which most of the N proteins were accumulated. Notably, the N proteins of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 showed a significantly reduced tendency to form cytoplasmic condensates. The condensate formation was not a consequence of overexpression of N proteins, as is typical for LLPS-inducing proteins. These condensates contained components of stress granules (SGs), indicating that the expression of N proteins caused the formation of SGs, which integrate N proteins. Thus, the N proteins of two closely related viruses, SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, have the capacity to antagonize SG induction and/or assembly, in contrast to all other known HCoVs.

Structural proteins of human coronaviruses: what makes them different?

Following COVID-19 outbreak with its unprecedented effect on the entire world, the interest to the coronaviruses increased. The causative agent of the COVID-19, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus - 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is one of seven coronaviruses that is pathogenic to humans. Others include SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, HCoV-HKU1, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E. The viruses differ in their pathogenicity. SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 are capable to spread rapidly and cause epidemic, while HCoV-HKU1, HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63 and HCoV-229E cause mild respiratory disease. The difference in the viral behavior is due to structural and functional differences. All seven human coronaviruses possess four structural proteins: spike, envelope, membrane, and nucleocapsid. Spike protein with its receptor binding domain is crucial for the entry to the host cell, where different receptors on the host cell are recruited by different viruses. Envelope protein plays important role in viral assembly, and following cellular entry, contributes to immune response. Membrane protein is an abundant viral protein, contributing to the assembly and pathogenicity of the virus. Nucleocapsid protein encompasses the viral RNA into ribonucleocapsid, playing important role in viral replication. The present review provides detailed summary of structural and functional characteristics of structural proteins from seven human coronaviruses, and could serve as a practical reference when pathogenic human coronaviruses are compared, and novel treatments are proposed.

Detection of Increased Activity of Human Parvovirus B19 Using Commercial Laboratory Testing of Clinical Samples and Source Plasma Donor Pools - United States, 2024.

In most persons, human parvovirus B19 (B19) causes a mild respiratory illness, but infection can result in adverse health outcomes in persons who are pregnant, immunocompromised, or who have chronic hemolytic blood disorders. During the first quarter of 2024, several European countries reported increases in B19 activity. In the United States, there is no routine surveillance for B19. To assess increases in B19 activity in the United States, trends in testing and results from two independent populations were examined: 1) the presence of immunoglobulin (Ig) M antibodies, a marker of recent infection, in clinical specimens ordered by physicians and 2) B19 nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) in pooled donor source plasma from a large commercial laboratory during 2018-2024. The proportion of IgM-positive clinical specimens reached 9.9% in the second quarter (Q2) of 2024 after remaining <1.5% during 2020-2023 and was higher than Q2 peaks in 2018 (3.8%, p<0.001) and 2019 (5.1%, p<0.001). The prevalence of B19-NAAT-positive donor pools (512 donations per pool) reached 20% in June 2024 after remaining <2% during 2020-2023 and was higher than peaks in 2018 (6.7%, p<0.001) and 2019 (7.3%, p<0.001). Considering the B19 activity increase in the United States in 2024, promotion of measures to prevent respiratory viruses and monitor for adverse B19-related outcomes by health care providers and public health authorities might reduce adverse health outcomes in pregnant persons and others at increased risk.

An Update on Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus, Clade 2.3.4.4b.

Since the resurgence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) virus, clade 2.3.4.4b, during 2021, these viruses have spread widely among birds worldwide, causing poultry outbreaks and infections of a wide range of terrestrial and marine mammal species. During 2024, HPAI A(H5N1) virus, clade 2.3.4.4b, was detected in dairy cattle for the first time and caused an ongoing multistate outbreak, with high levels of virus documented in raw cow milk. Human infections with clade 2.3.4.4b viruses from exposures to infected poultry or dairy cattle have resulted in a wide spectrum of illness severity, from conjunctivitis or mild respiratory illness to severe and fatal pneumonia in different countries. Vigilance, and stronger global virologic surveillance among birds, poultry, terrestrial and marine mammals, and humans, with virus characterization and rapid data sharing, is needed to inform the threat of clade 2.3.4.4b viruses, as they continue to evolve, to public health.

Indomethacin inhibits human seasonal coronaviruses at late stages of viral replication in lung cells: Impact on virus-induced COX-2 expression

Coronaviruses (CoV), zoonotic viruses periodically emerging worldwide, represent a constant potential threat to humans. To date, seven human coronaviruses (HCoV) have been identified: HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63, HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-HKU1, globally circulating in the human population (seasonal coronaviruses, sHCoV), and three highly-pathogenic coronaviruses, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. Although sHCoV generally cause only mild respiratory diseases, severe complications may occur in specific populations, highlighting the need for broad-spectrum anti-coronavirus drugs. Herein we show that indomethacin (INDO), a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug widely used in the clinic for its potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, effectively inhibits the replication of Alpha-coronavirus HCoV-229E and Beta-coronavirus HCoV-OC43 in human lung-derived cells. Indomethacin does not interfere with HCoV binding or entry into target cells, but acts at late stages of the virus life cycle, inhibiting viral RNA synthesis and infectious viral particles production. Although INDO anti-inflammatory action is mediated by blocking cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX-1/2) enzymatic activity, the antiviral effect appears to be cyclooxygenase-independent and is not mimicked by the potent COX-1/2 inhibitor aspirin. Interestingly we found that both seasonal HCoVs markedly (>100 fold) induce the expression of the pro-inflammatory mediator COX-2 in lung cells; notably, INDO-treatment was found to effectively inhibit virus-induced COX-2 expression at the transcriptional level, revealing an additional mechanism to prevent COX-2-mediated inflammatory reactions in HCoV-infected lung cells, besides COX activity inhibition. Altogether the results indicate that indomethacin, possessing both potent anti-inflammatory properties and a direct antiviral activity against HCoV, could be effective in the treatment of Alpha- and Beta-coronavirus infections.

Post COVID Guillain Barre Syndrome (GBS) in paediatric COVID unit of Dhaka Medical College: A case series

SARS Cov-2 infection presents with mild respiratory illness but has evidence of multisystem involvement in little percentage, though the severity of infection is variable in children. Neurological manifestations may vary from headache, dizziness, olfactory or taste dysfunction to specific syndromes including meningoencephalitis, stroke, and acute transverse myelitis and Guillain- Barre syndrome (GBS). But there is little evidence worldwide about neurological complications of COVID-19 in children. Here we reporting five cases of post COVID-19 GBS with relevant literature review. J Dhaka Med Coll. 2022; 31(2) : 232-236

Retrospective Genotyping of Enteroviruses Using a Diagnostic Nanopore Sequencing Workflow.

Enteroviruses are among the most common viruses pathogenic to humans. They are associated with various forms of disease, ranging from mild respiratory illness to severe neurological diseases. In recent years, an increasing number of isolated cases of children developing meningitis or encephalitis as a result of enterovirus infection have been reported, as well as discrete enterovirus D68 outbreaks in North America in 2014 and 2016. We developed an assay to rapidly genotype enteroviruses by sequencing a region within the VP1 gene using nanopore Flongles. We retrospectively analyzed enterovirus-/rhinovirus-positive clinical samples from the Zurich, Switzerland area mainly collected during two seasons in 2019/2020 and 2021/2022. Respiratory, cerebrospinal fluid, and stool samples were analyzed. Whole-genome sequencing was performed on samples with ambiguous genotyping results and enterovirus D68-positive samples. Out of 255 isolates, a total of 95 different genotypes were found. A difference in the prevalence of enterovirus and rhinovirus infections was observed for both sample type and age group. In particular, children aged 0-4 years showed a higher frequency of enterovirus infections. Comparing the respiratory seasons, a higher prevalence was found, especially for enterovirus A and rhinovirus A after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The enterovirus genotyping workflow provides a rapid diagnostic tool for individual analysis and continuous enterovirus surveillance.

Update on feline calicivirus: viral evolution, pathogenesis, epidemiology, prevention and control.

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is a prevalent and impactful viral pathogen affecting domestic cats. As an RNA virus, FCV exhibits high mutability and genetic plasticity, enabling its persistence within cat populations. Viral genetic diversity is associated with a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from asymptomatic infections and mild oral and upper respiratory tract diseases to the potential development of virulent systemic, and even fatal conditions. This diversity poses distinctive challenges in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases caused by FCV. Over the past four decades, research has significantly deepened understanding of this pathogen, with an emphasis on molecular biology, evolutionary dynamics, vaccine development, and disease management strategies. This review discusses various facets of FCV, including its genomic structure, evolution, innate immunity, pathogenesis, epidemiology, and approaches to disease management. FCV remains a complex and evolving concern in feline health, requiring continuous research to enhance understanding of its genetic diversity, to improve vaccine efficacy, and to explore novel treatment options.

MYADM binds human parechovirus 1 and is essential for viral entry

Human parechoviruses (PeV-A) are increasingly being recognized as a cause of infection in neonates and young infants, leading to a spectrum of clinical manifestations ranging from mild gastrointestinal and respiratory illnesses to severe sepsis and meningitis. However, the host factors required for parechovirus entry and infection remain poorly characterized. Here, using genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 loss-of-function screens, we identify myeloid-associated differentiation marker (MYADM) as a host factor essential for the entry of several human parechovirus genotypes including PeV-A1, PeV-A2 and PeV-A3. Genetic knockout of MYADM confers resistance to PeV-A infection in cell lines and in human gastrointestinal epithelial organoids. Using immunoprecipitation, we show that MYADM binds to PeV-A1 particles via its fourth extracellular loop, and we identify critical amino acid residues within the loop that mediate binding and infection. The demonstrated interaction between MYADM and PeV-A1, and its importance specifically for viral entry, suggest that MYADM is a virus receptor. Knockout of MYADM does not reduce PeV-A1 attachment to cells pointing to a role at the post-attachment stage. Our study suggests that MYADM is a multi-genotype receptor for human parechoviruses with potential as an antiviral target to combat disease associated with emerging parechoviruses.

Comparative Performance in the Detection of Four Coronavirus Genera from Human, Animal, and Environmental Specimens.

Emerging coronaviruses (CoVs) are understood to cause critical human and domestic animal diseases; the spillover from wildlife reservoirs can result in mild and severe respiratory illness in humans and domestic animals and can spread more readily in these naïve hosts. A low-cost CoV molecular method that can detect a variety of CoVs from humans, animals, and environmental specimens is an initial step to ensure the early identification of known and new viruses. We examine a collection of 50 human, 46 wastewater, 28 bat, and 17 avian archived specimens using 3 published pan-CoV PCR assays called Q-, W-, and X-CoV PCR, to compare the performance of each assay against four CoV genera. X-CoV PCR can detect all four CoV genera, but Q- and W-CoV PCR failed to detect δ-CoV. In total, 21 (42.0%), 9 (18.0%), and 21 (42.0%) of 50 human specimens and 30 (65.22%), 6 (13.04%), and 27 (58.70%) of 46 wastewater specimens were detected using Q-, W-, and X-CoV PCR assays, respectively. The X-CoV PCR assay has a comparable sensitivity to Q-CoV PCR in bat CoV detection. Combining Q- and X-CoV PCR assays can increase sensitivity and avoid false negative results in the early detection of novel CoVs.

Psychosocial impacts of coughing in public places during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-sectional study in the western region of Saudi Arabia

BACKGROUND Dry cough is a prevalent symptom of COVID-19. During the pandemic, people may mistake this cough for symptoms associated with other respiratory diseases. This increases the risk of individuals with a cough being falsely judged as having COVID-19. This study aimed to investigate the impact of coughing in public places on adults’ mental and social well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic and to explore the role of demographic factors in the relationship between coughing and psychosocial life in public places in the western region of Saudi Arabia. METHODS This cross-sectional study was conducted in the western region of Saudi Arabia, targeting healthy adults aged ≥18 years. The participants were randomly selected using a cluster sampling technique. Data were collected through a self-administered validated questionnaire to explore the psychosocial impact of coughing in public places during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, the questionnaire collected demographic information, smoking habits, cough frequency, consumption of cough medications, history of mild respiratory diseases, and family history of chronic respiratory illnesses. The mean and standard deviation were used to calculate continuous variables, and frequency and percentages were used to present categorical variables. We analyzed the relationships between study variables using the analysis of variance test. RESULTS 288 adults participated in the study, with a 67.2% agreement score. 82.0% of the participants avoided people who coughed in public, while 51.8% felt angry and frustrated when someone coughed in public during the pandemic. CONCLUSIONS COVID-19 has changed how people react to coughing in public. Mild coughs can be mistaken for COVID-19, leading to avoidance.

Back to the Future: Immune Protection or Enhancement of Future Coronaviruses.

Before the emergence of SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV, and most recently, SARS-CoV-2, four other coronaviruses (the alpha coronaviruses NL63 and 229E and the beta coronaviruses OC43 and HKU1) had already been circulating in the human population. These circulating coronaviruses all cause mild respiratory illness during the winter seasons, and most people are already infected in early life. Could antibodies and/or T cells, especially against the beta coronaviruses, have offered some form of protection against (severe) COVID-19 caused by infection with SARS-CoV-2? Related is the question of whether survivors of SARS-CoV-1 or MERS-CoV would be relatively protected against SARS-CoV-2. More importantly, would humoral and cellular immunological memory generated during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, either by infection or vaccination, offer protection against future coronaviruses? Or rather than protection, could antibody-dependent enhancement have taken place, a mechanism by which circulating corona antibodies enhance the severity of COVID-19? Another related phenomenon, the original antigenic sin, would also predict that the effectiveness of the immune response to future coronaviruses would be impaired because of the reactivation of memory against irrelevant epitopes. The currently available evidence indicates that latter scenarios are highly unlikely and that especially cytotoxic memory T cells directed against conserved epitopes of human coronaviruses could at least offer partial protection against future coronaviruses.

The Potential Mechanisms Behind Adverse Effect of Coronavirus Disease-19 on Heart and Liver Damage: A Review.

Coronaviruses (CoVs) belong to the RNA viruses family. The viruses in this family are known to cause mild respiratory disease in humans. The origin of the novel SARS-COV2 virus that caused the coronavirus-19 disease (COVID-19) is the Wuhan city in China from where it disseminated to cause a global pandemic. Although lungs are the predominant target organ for Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19), since its outbreak, the disease is known to affect heart, blood vessels, kidney, intestine, liver and brain. This review aimed to summarize the catastrophic impacts of Coronavirus disease-19 on heart and liver along with its mechanisms of pathogenesis. The information used in this review was obtained from relevant articles published on PubMed, Google Scholar, Google, WHO website, CDC and other sources. Key searching statements and phrases related to COVID-19 were used to retrieve information. Original research articles, review papers, research letters and case reports were used as a source of information. Besides causing severe lung injury, COVID-19 has also been reported to affect and cause dysfunction of many other organs. COVID-19 infection can affect people by downregulating membrane-bound active angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). People who have deficient ACE2 expression are more vulnerable to COVID-19 infection. The patients' pre-existing co-morbidities are major risk factors that predispose individuals to severe COVID-19. The disease severity and its broad spectrum phenotype is a result of combined direct and indirect pathogenic factors. Therefore, protocols that harmonize many therapeutic preferences should be the best alternatives to de-escalate the disease and obviate deaths caused as a result of multiple organ damage and dysfunction induced by the disease.

Safety of fluconazole in kidney transplant recipients for prevention of coccidioidomycosis.

Coccidioides is an endemic fungus that causes infections ranging from mild respiratory illness to life-threatening disease, and immunocompromised hosts such as solid organ transplant recipients are at higher risk for disseminated infection and mortality. Our center administers fluconazole prophylaxis to kidney transplant recipients residing in geographic areas with higher incidences of coccidioidomycosis. However, because drug-drug interactions occur between triazoles and immunosuppressants used in transplant medicine, we undertook a study to ascertain whether fluconazole prophylaxis was associated with any important safety outcomes in kidney transplant recipients. This retrospective study evaluated patients who had undergone kidney transplantation between 2016 and 2019. Data on patient demographics, transplant-related clinical information, use of fluconazole prophylaxis (200 mg daily for 6-12 months post-transplant), and patient outcomes were obtained. The primary outcome was mean estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) at 12 months, comparing those who received fluconazole prophylaxis to those who did not. Secondary outcomes included mean eGFR at 3 months, 6 months, and 9 months post-transplant, patient survival, biopsy-proven graft rejection, graft loss, or a new requirement for post-transplant dialysis, all within 12 months post-transplant. The mean eGFR at 12 months was similar between both groups, with 66.4 ml/min/1.73 m² in the fluconazole prophylaxis group vs. 64.3 ml/min/1.73 m² in the non-fluconazole prophylaxis group (P=0.55). Secondary outcomes were similar across both groups. Multivariable linear regression found no significant association between fluconazole use and graft function. Fluconazole prophylaxis for prevention of coccidioidomycosis was not associated with adverse graft outcomes in kidney transplant recipients.

Construction and characterization of an infectious clone for human bocaparvovirus HBoV1

Human bocaparvovirus 1 (HBoV1) is one of the two parvoviruses that infect humans and cause diseases. Infection with HBoV1 in infants and young children aged 2-5 years can lead to mild or severe acute respiratory diseases, with the most severe cases posing a life-threatening risk. Similar to other parvoviruses, the HBoV1 DNA genome consists of two terminal reverse repeats (ITRs) at its ends, which are necessary for viral genome replication. However, up to now, it has remained a technical challenge to clone the entire ITRs through PCR amplification. In this study, we successfully constructed a full-length infectious clone of HBoV1, termed as pSKHBoV1, by synthesizing and cloning the terminal ITRs in a stepwise manner. After transfecting HEK293 cells with the infectious clone pSKHBoV1, we were able to reconstitute the viral replication cycle. This included the expression of key non-structural proteins, post-transcriptional modification and processing of viral RNA, viral genome replication, and potentially the production of progeny virions containing the defined DNA genome. The successful construction of the infectious clone pSKHBoV1 lays the foundation for future studies on HBoV1 replication and propagation, virus-host interaction, and the development of viral vaccines.

Research on Nursing of Patients with Mild Respiratory Infectious Diseases

Objective: To explore the current home care programs and effects of patients with mild respiratory tract infections caused by influenza virus, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and novel coronavirus, so as to provide a reference for subsequent related research. Methods: PubMed, WebofScience core collection, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Data and China Biology Medicine Database were searched by computer for literature screening, data extraction and summary on the existing home care programs and effects of patients with mild respiratory infectious diseases. Results: in 14 articles. Chinese researchers on defining the concept of mild and standard is a bit different, can be integrated to respiratory tract infection as the main performance, such as dry throat, sore throat, cough, fever, etc. Nursing programs generally included preventive nursing combined with health guidance intervention, personalized symptom nursing, cluster nursing, etc. Conclusion: the infection of respiratory tract infection caused by mild standard has not been unified, a direct impact on the late judge condition and formulate the related nursing operation timing, means and methods. At present, the commonly used nursing methods can effectively shorten the course of disease and relieve symptoms, but there is no specific mechanism research in the existing literature, and further exploration is needed to clarify its effect in the future.

A systematic overview of metal nanoparticles as alternative disinfectants for emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Coronaviruses are a diverse family of viruses, and new strains can emerge. While the majority of coronavirus strains cause mild respiratory illnesses, a few are responsible for severe diseases such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS). SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, is an example of a coronavirus that has led to a pandemic. Coronaviruses can mutate over time, potentially leading to the emergence of new variants. Some of these variants may have increased transmissibility or resistance to existing vaccines and treatments. The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in the recent past has sparked innovation in curbing virus spread, with sanitizers and disinfectants taking center stage. These essential tools hinder pathogen dissemination, especially for unvaccinated or rapidly mutating viruses. The World Health Organization supports the use of alcohol-based sanitizers and disinfectants globally against pandemics. However, there are ongoing concerns about their widespread usage and their potential impact on human health, animal well-being, and ecological equilibrium. In this ever-changing scenario, metal nanoparticles hold promise in combating a range of pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2, as well as other viruses such as norovirus, influenza, and HIV-1. This review explores their potential as non-alcoholic champions against SARS-CoV-2 and other pandemics of tomorrow. This extends beyond metal nanoparticles and advocates a balanced examination of pandemic control tools, exploring their strengths and weaknesses. The manuscript thus involves the evaluation of metal nanoparticle-based alternative approaches as hand sanitizers and disinfectants, providing a comprehensive perspective on this critical issue.