Chloride Ion Migration Research Articles

Mechanical, Durability, and Microstructural Evaluation of Coal Ash Incorporated Recycled Aggregate Concrete: An Application of Waste Effluents for Sustainable Construction

This study has endeavored to produce eco-friendly coal ash-incorporated recycled aggregate concrete (FRAC) by utilizing wastewater effluents for environmental sustainability. The mechanical and durability efficiency of the FRAC manufactured were explored using different kinds of effluent by performing a series of tests at various ages. The considered kinds of effluent for the mixing of FRAC were collected from a service station, as well as fertilizer, textile, leather, and sugar factories. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was utilized to judge the microstructural behavior of the constructed concrete compositions. The outcomes revealed that using textile factory effluent in the manufacturing of FRAC depicted peak compressive and split tensile strength improvements of 24% and 16% compared to that of the FRAC manufactured using potable water. The application of leather factory effluent for the manufacturing of FRAC portrayed the highest water absorption (13% better than the control mix). The application of fertilizer effluent in the manufacture of FRAC presented the greatest mass loss (19% enhanced than the control mix) due to H2SO4 solution intrusion and the ultimate chloride ion migration (16 mm at twenty-eight days of testing). The summation of coal ash improved the mechanical behavior of the concrete and also caused a reduction in its durability loss of. The SEM analysis depicted that the textile factory effluent presented the most densified microstructure with the development of ettringite needles and CSH gel having refined the ITZ.

Electric field induced degradation in sky-blue perovskite light-emitting diodes

A common strategy to obtain blue- or sky-blue-emitting perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) is to incorporate chlorine into the bromine-based perovskites. However, reliability is a crucial and challenging issue. The underlying degradation mechanism of these mixed-halide PeLEDs under continuous electrical bias remains incompletely understood. We unveil that electrical bias can seriously influence the spectral stability and efficiency roll-off of mixed-halide PeLEDs. Through the comprehensive microscopic and spectroscopic studies, we identify several key factors that account for the device degradation: (i) electric-field induced Joule heating; (ii) pinhole formation under electrical bias; and (iii) halogen ion migration toward the interface of electron-transport layer and cathode. We also substantiate that chloride ion migration plays a more dominant role than bromide in the device degradation of the sky-blue mixed-halide PeLEDs. The experimental results are fully supported by our theoretical calculations. These findings provide new insights for a deep understanding of the degradation mechanism of the mixed-halide PeLEDs and pave the way to obtaining stable PeLEDs based on compositional engineering strategies in the future.

Mechanical Properties and Chloride Penetration Resistance of Copper Slag Aggregate Concrete

The authors of this paper systematically studied the mechanical properties and durability of concrete prepared with copper slag instead of natural aggregates. An analysis index was used to assess compressive strength, and a statistical method was used to establish a mix proportion design theory of copper slag aggregate concrete. The analysis was used to quantify the effect of copper slag aggregate concrete on resistance to chloride ion migration. Combined with the morphological analysis of SEM images and fractal calculations, the tests were used to explain the improvement mechanism of copper slag as a fine aggregate on concrete’s mechanics and durability from the microscopic mechanism perspective. The results showed that replacing a natural sand fine aggregate with copper slag improved the compressive strength of concrete, and the optimum replacement rate was found to be 40%. The influence of the water–cement ratio on the strength of copper slag aggregate concrete was exceptionally conspicuous—the more significant the water–cement proportion was the lower the compressive strength of the concrete. The optimum dosage of the water-reducing agent was found to be 3.8 kg/m3. A rapid chloride ion migration test and potential corrosion analysis showed that copper slag aggregate concrete’s initial density and corrosion resistance were higher than those of natural aggregate concrete. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis results showed that the structural concrete comprising copper slag aggregate instead of natural sand had a better anticorrosion effect on embedded steel bars. SEM morphology and fractal dimension analyses showed that the incorporation of steel slag aggregate decreased the initial damage to the concrete internal section.

Evaluation of test procedures for durability and permeability assessment of concretes containing calcined clay

The durability and permeability of concrete could be investigated by different test methods that evaluate various transport mechanisms of water and ions in cement-based materials. This research has investigated the suitability of conventional permeability and durability assessment test methods for evaluating the properties of concrete mixtures containing calcined clays and limestone calcined clay cements (LC3). The water absorption, capillary water sorptivity, water penetration, surface electrical resistivity, rapid chloride ions migration coefficient, chloride ions’ penetration profile, and diffusion coefficient were examined in concrete mixtures. A rapid approximation method has also been proposed to estimate the kaolinite content of clays based on the chemical composition data. According to the results, water absorption test based on BS 1881-122 could not accurately specify the permeability properties of binary and LC3 blends. Further, the initial rate of capillary water absorption had an appropriate correlation with the results of water penetration and electrical resistivity test methods.

Experimental study of mechanical properties and durability of green concrete containing slag, waste rubber powder and recycled aggregate with artificial neural network

In this experimental study, the impact of using waste materials such as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), waste rubber powder (WRP), and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) were evaluated on the compressive, tensile and, flexural strengths and durability test of rapid chloride migration test (RCMT) of concrete. It was observed that the mechanical properties of concrete decreased by raising the proportions of recycled materials in all replacement ratios. Because of the adverse effects of the WRP and RCA on the cement matrix and the interfacial transition zone, the reduction of the mechanical properties is higher for the concrete specimens with both recycled materials. In the case of durability, the migration rate of chloride ions in concrete is reduced by increasing the WRP rates due to the blockage of micro-pores connections. However, adding the RCA has a negative effect on the durability performance of concrete. Regarding the simultaneous effect of slag, rubber powder, and recycled aggregate on the migration of chloride ions, it can be derived that durability of samples containing 20% slag, 2.5% rubber powder, and 25% recycled aggregate at the age of 7 days on average is 14.8% higher compared to the reference sample. As the age of the samples increases to 28 days, the migration of chloride ions in the samples reduced 9.5% compared to 7 days.

Performance and life-cycle assessment of high-volume fly ash concrete mixes containing steel slag sand

The present study discusses the performance of high-volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC) mixes containing slag sand which is a solid waste obtained from basic oxygen steel making industry. The design of such mixes was optimized to attain sufficient strength for structural purposes and then cement and natural sand in them were replaced with fly ash and slag sand up to 50%. Other than temperature developments, their fresh and hardened properties like slump, air content, compressive and tensile strengths, elastic modulus, strain softening response under uniaxial compression, shrinkage, water permeation, sorption and absorption, chloride ions diffusion and migration, and bulk electrical resistance at different ages were also studied in detail. The impact of fly ash and slag sand on the sustainability of such mixes were assessed and their co-effects on concrete microstructure were discussed with the results of scanning electron microscopy and Mercury intrusion porosimetry. The HVFAC mixes displayed a slower strength increase at early ages, but they were found to be highly workable, durable, and temperature rise in them was comparatively lower. The strength and durability of these mixes at early ages were found to enhance in the presence of slag sand which is generally capable of strengthening the aggregate-paste interface. India is the second largest producer of cement in the world. Both the fly ash and slag sand possess a lower energy requirement and their inclusions led to the production of eco-friendly concrete which is highly desirable for Indian conditions.

Investigations on the Performance of Shotcrete Using Artificial Lightweight Shale Ceramsite as Coarse Aggregate.

In this study, a type of artificial lightweight shale ceramsite (ALSC) was used as the coarse lightweight aggregate for shotcrete (LAS), of which the mechanical properties, chloride penetration ion resistance, and rebound behavior were investigated. Based on the experimental results on compressive, tensile, and bond strength, LAS meet the strength requirements, and the replacement rate of fly ash (FA) and silica fume (SF) are suggested to be kept at ~15% and 10%, respectively, to result in the best mechanical properties of LAS. Adding FA and SF to the mixture significantly improved the chloride ion penetration resistance (CPR) of LAS because of morphology effects and secondary hydration of FA and SF that lead to a denser microstructure of the mixture. The electric flux and chloride ion migration coefficient (DRCM) of LAS decreased by 56% and 67%, respectively, with FA increasing from 0 to 10%. The electric flux and DRCM further decreased by 71% (153C) and 66% (3.24 m2/s), respectively, with FA increasing from 10 to 20%. As 5–10% SF was further added, the electric flux and DRCM of LAS decreased to extremely low levels; for instance, with FA = 10% and SF = 10%, DRCM = 1.61 m2/s, and the electric flux was too small and could be ignored. The contact stresses between aggregate and shotcrete mixtures were measured to investigate the rebound trend of ALSC in shotcrete. According to the analyses of the theoretical model of the rebound behavior of aggregate in shotcrete proposed by Armelin and Banthia, because of the reduced contact stresses between ALSC and mortar and the smaller density of LAS compared with normal-weight aggregate, the rebound rate of ALSC was about half of that of normal-weight aggregate in the shooting process of the shotcrete.

Influence of catholytes on the generation of steel corrosion in concrete with accelerated chloride migration method

In the aim of developing localized corrosion, artificial corrosion on a steel sheet coated with concrete was implemented through accelerated chloride migration with a constant applied voltage (20 V). Four chloride solutions (20 g/L NaCl) with different initial pH were used. The pH values and chloride concentrations of the solutions were recorded during the test. Electrochemical non-destructive measurements of corrosion potential (Ecorr) and apparent linear polarization resistance (Rp,app) of the steel sheet were made. The concrete cover was then removed to observe corrosion visually (autopsy). The corrosion products were characterized by XRD and SEM and the results showed that the migration of chloride ions in concrete was slowed down by hydroxide ions, which was highlighted by a reduction of chloride transport number. Whether chloride ions were present at the steel interface or not, corrosion occurred because of acidification at the steel sheet/concrete interface due to the anodic polarization. However, when chloride ions were present, the corrosion propagation phase started earlier and the corrosion rate was higher.

Influence of Ceramsite with Assembly Unit of Sludge and Excavated Soil on the Properties of Cement Concrete.

The application of sludge in the manufacture of ceramic material provides an outlet for waste disposal. In this study, we aimed to produce a new lightweight aggregate applications in concrete. The influence of burning temperature on the ignition loss rate, cylinder compressive strength, and the water absorption rate of ceramsite mixed with sludge and excavated soil was investigated. The slump flow, apparent density, and mechanical strength (flexural and compressive strengths) of cement concrete with ceramsite were determined. Moreover, the chloride ion permeability coefficient and the thermal conductivity were tested. Finally, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and thermal analysis were applied to analyze the mechanisms of the properties of ceramsite. Results show that the ignition loss rate and the burning temperature are in a quadratic relationship. The cylinder compressive strength shows a positive quadratic relationship with the burning temperature. However, the water absorption rate negatively correlates with the burning temperature. The addition of sludge can increase the ignition loss rate and cylinder compressive strength of ceramsite. Meanwhile, the effect of sludge on the water absorption rate is the opposite. Ceramsite decreases the slump flow and the apparent density of cement concrete. Cement concrete with 10% ceramsite shows the highest mechanical strength and the lowest chloride ion migration coefficient. Correction of the chloride ion migration coefficient and the content of ceramsite was performed as an exponential equation. Ceramsite exerts a negative effect on the thermal conductivity of cement concrete. Concrete with sludge ceramsite shows higher slump flow, apparent density, mechanical strength, and resistance to chloride ion penetration and thermal conductivity than concrete sludge with clay ceramsite. The mullite content of sludge ceramsite is higher than that of clay ceramsite. Additionally, sludge ceramsite exhibits a denser structure than that of clay ceramsite.

Repairing performances of novel cement mortar modified with graphene oxide and polyacrylate polymer

Abstract Most cementitious repair materials have non-ignorable drawbacks such as low strength, insufficient bonding, and low anti-permeability. Although the bonding and anti-permeability of repair mortars modified by polymer will be substantially improved, the compressive strength and component integrity will be decreased. Hereby six groups of cement mortars modified by varied dosages of Graphene Oxide (GO) and PA copolymer (GOPARMs) were prepared. The flexural strength (f t), compressive strength (f c), f t/f c, bond strength (f b), and chloride ion migration coefficient (λ c) of GOPARMs were systematically studied by axial compressive, three-bending, pull-out, RCM method, along with microstructure analysis. When GO and PA dosages are fixed at 0.03 and 5 wt%, respectively, the f t, f c, f t/f c, f b, and λ c of GOPARMs reach the best comprehensive performances, which are 6.4, 46.5, 0.14, 6.73 MPa, and 1.179 × 10−12 m2/s. Compared with the control mortar, the f t, f c, f t /f c, and f b of GOPARMs are improved by 5.7, 12.3, 7, and 103%, respectively, and the corresponding λ c is dramatically reduced by 40.4%. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) shows that trace of GO can play a template nucleation effect on the hydration products’ morphology and microstructure of GOPARMs. Meanwhile, cured PA polymer can form hydrophobic film and fill the interfacial pores among hydration products, finally superior repairing performances of GOPARMs with optimal mix can be achieved.

Prediction of mechanical and durability characteristics of concrete including slag and recycled aggregate concrete with artificial neural networks (ANNs)

This research aims to create an artificial neural networks (ANN) model to forecast mechanical and durability properties (compressive strengths and the durability test of rapid chloride migration test (RCMT)) of waste-included concrete according to the features of the reference samples. Moreover, this experimental study evaluated the mechanical characteristics and long-term durability of concrete when using a synergic of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and recycled concrete aggregate. This experimental study evaluated concrete's mechanical characteristics and long-term durability when using a synergic of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and recycled concrete aggregate. Concrete samples were made with different binder content and water to binder ratios, including the RCA at substitution levels of 25 percent and 50 percent as well as slag at substitution levels of 20 percent and 40 percent by weight of Portland cement in order to evaluate the influence of waste materials on concrete mixtures. The mechanical characteristics of concrete deteriorated when the quantities of recycled aggregate increased in all replacement ratios. However, the findings of the mechanical characteristics suggest that slag can reduce the detrimental effects of substituting coarse aggregate with RCA in the early ages of the samples. In the case of durability, applying RCA increases the chloride ion migration rate in concrete. Slag mitigates the detrimental impacts of recycled aggregate by enhancing hydration products, except for early stages.

Research into Carbon Dioxide Curing’s Effects on the Properties of Reactive Powder Concrete with Assembly Unit of Sulphoaluminate Cement and Ordinary Portland Cement

Excessive emissions of carbon dioxide can lead to greenhouse effect thus destroying the ecological balance. Therefore, effective measures need to be taken to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide. In this study, the influence of carbon dioxide curing on the mechanical strength and NaCl freeze-thaw deterioration of reactive powder concrete (RPC) with the assembly unit of sulphoaluminate cement and ordinary Portland cement was investigated. The ratio of sulphoaluminate cement ranged from 0% to 100% by the total mass of cement with the curing age ranging from 1 d to 28 d. The mechanical strength of RPC with 50% ordinary Portland cement and 50% sulphoaluminate cement containing the polypropylene fibers ranging from 1% to 4% by volume of RPC were investigated. Moreover, the following mass and mechanical strength loss rates, the carbonation depth, the chloride ion migration coefficient and the relative dynamic elastic modulus (RDEM) during NaCl freeze-thaw cycles were determined. Finally, the scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction were applied in investigating the carbonation process of RPC. Results showed that the addition of sulphoaluminate cement could improve the mechanical strength of RPC at low curing age (lower than 7 d). However, when the cuing age reached 7 d, the sulphoaluminate cement demonstrated negative effect on the mechanical strength. Moreover, the carbon dioxide curing led to increases in the mechanical strength and when ordinary Portland cement was added the enhancing effect was more obvious. Furthermore, the carbon dioxide curing could effectively improve the resistance of NaCl freeze-thaw cycles and increase the carbonation depth. Finally, the increasing dosages of polypropylene fibers were advantageous to the mechanical strength and the resistance of NaCl freeze-thaw cycles. From the researching results of the microscopic performance, the carbon dioxide curing could improve the compactness of hydration products and reduce the content of calcium hydroxide especially at the curing age of 3 days.

Effects of Cea on the Microstructure Evolution and Chloride Ion Migration of Marine Concrete

Effects of Cea on the Microstructure Evolution and Chloride Ion Migration of Marine Concrete

Polymer modified concrete impact on the durability of infrastructure exposed to chloride environments

A limited number of studies are available on the impact of polymer modified concrete on the corrosion effect of Reinforced Concrete (RC) structures, such as bridges exposed to maritime environments or de-icing salts. The aim of this research was to analyse the influence of polymers on the mechanical and durability properties of concrete. Seven types of recyclable thermoplastic polymers PCL, Polymorph, LDPE/EVA granular, LDPE/EVA powder, GPE, N-228 and TPE were used as fine aggregate replacement (3 and 5%). The impact of the molecular weight and structure, size, shape and surface texture of polymers on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete were evaluated. All concretes were designed for a compressive strength higher than 50 MPa. The results show that polymer modified concrete makes the concrete suitable for conventional reinforced concrete manually compacted and heavily reinforced sections with vibrations. Adding granular and powder form of polymers lead to a 2–15% strength increase. For most of the polymers studied, their effect on preventing water migration via capillarity seems to occurr 2–3 days after exposing concrete to water. The substitution of natural fine aggregates with some polymers lead to a reduction of chloride ion migration into the concrete samples, indicating that some of them stop free chlorides inside concrete. 5% LDPE/EVA leads to the higher restricted movement of free chloride migration as the coefficient decreased by 64% in comparison to plain concrete.

Influence of Potassium-Based Alkaline Electrolyzed Water on Hydration Process and the Properties of Cement-Based Materials with Fly Ash

Alkaline electrolyzed water, a kind of clean green water with excellent characteristics such as high activity, strong alkalinity, high ion penetrating ability, electrical charge, and good molecule adsorption, was significant to the resource utilization of industrial fly ash waste. This paper studies highly active potassium-based alkaline electrolyzed water’s impact, compared with ordinary water, on the cement hydration process using microstructural methods such as a hydration heat test, differential thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern, and Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image analysis. Fly ash cement-based materials were first prepared with alkaline electrolyzed water as the mixing water. The alkaline electrolyzed water’s influence on fly ash paste workability and the mechanical properties of fly ash mortar for varying fly ash proportions were ratified. Then alkaline electrolyzed water with the best pH value was selected to prepare fly ash concrete, and its durability was studied. The test results showed that it is feasible to increase the utilization rate of fly ash by using alkaline electrolyzed water. Furthermore, it promoted the process of cement hydration, increased the rate of the hydration reaction, and the promotion effect increased with the increase in pH value of the alkaline electrolyzed water, and also promoted the effective decomposition of the vitreous shell of fly ash to stimulate its early activity. Concurrent tests with ordinary water paste showed that the water requirement for normal consistency and setting time with alkaline electrolyzed water paste were significantly less. Alkaline electrolyzed water also solved the problem related to the low early strength of fly ash mortar. Furthermore, using alkaline electrolyzed water with an optimum pH value of 11.5 to prepare fly ash concrete effectively reduced concrete’s carbonation depth and carbonation rate and lessened the chloride ion migration coefficient.

Experiment and simulation of chloride ion transport and binding in concrete under the coupling of diffusion and convection

Diffusion and convection are the main factors affecting chloride ion transport in unsaturated cementitious materials. In this study, capillary salt absorption experiment and steady-state migration experiment were used to investigate the chloride ion migration in unsaturated concrete, and a modified chloride ion diffusion-convection model was established for concrete considering curing age, initial water saturation and the combined effect of chloride ion. The results show that the chloride ion migration in unsaturated concrete can be divided into six stages: safety stage, initial stage, convection stage, deceleration stage, diffusion stage and stablilization stage, the chloride ion binding coefficient is approximately linear with the initial saturation, and the concrete with fly ash content of 40% or sand content of 60% has the best blocking effect on chloride ion migration.

Methyl orange assisted dispersion of graphene oxide in the alkaline environment for improving mechanical properties and fluidity of ordinary portland cement composites

Graphene oxide (GO) as a nano-reinforcing filler has great potential to improve the performance of cement-based composites, however, many challenges must be solved. Recent research has shown that GO tends to coagulate in the alkaline cement pore solution , limiting its reinforcement efficiency to improve the properties of cement composites . In this study, with polycarboxylic ether superplasticizer (PCE) as the main dispersant, methyl orange (MO) was further added to improve the dispersity of GO. The effect of MO on the dispersion of GO in saturated Ca(OH) 2 solution was investigated by UV-Vis spectrophotometer, Zeta potentiometer and atomic force microscope . Very low content of MO could significantly improve the colloidal stability of GO in CH solution and the optimal dispersion of GO was achieved when the mass ratio of GO to MO was 1:1. The effect of MO-dispersed GO on cement composites was investigated through mechanical strength analysis, microscopic analysis and chloride ion permeation analysis. The results showed that when the mass ratio was 1:1 and the content of GO was 0.03%, the 3d and 28d flexural strengths of cement mortar (0.03%-GO@MO) were increased by 27.4% and 15.4%, and the compressive strengths were increased by 21.8% and 15.3%, respectively, compared with the 0.03% GO-reinforced cement mortar(0.03%-GO). The chloride ion migration coefficient of 0.03%-GO@MO was 8.18%, lower than that of 0.03%-GO, which was caused by the denser internal structure of the former. Microscopic tests showed that the addition of MO could promote the dispersion of GO in cement pore solution, regulate the growth of cement hydration crystal and make the cement slurry structure denser. The addition of MO could reduce the loss of fluidity of the fresh slurry caused by GO. This study might provide a low-cost method to simultaneously improve the dispersion of GO in cement pore solution and the workability of GO-blended cement mortar and had many potential practical applications. • In the presence of PC, methyl orange could significantly improve the dispersion of GO in cement pore solution. • MO compensated the loss of the fluidity of the fresh cement slurry caused by the addition of GO. • Compared with GO-reinforced cement, the mechanical properties of MO@GO modified cement had been further improved. • The low-priced MO affords good dispersion of GO for the potential engineering application of cement-based composite.

Investigating the Strength and Durability Properties of One Way Slabs Incorporating Marble Dust as Cement Replacement Material

To reduce the environmental pollution caused by cement manufacturing and to save both the economy and resources, it is required to use alternative waste materials of pozzolanic nature to partially replace cement in the construction industry. Among different cement replacement materials being used now-a-days, marble dust is the one on which limited research has been done especially on the performance of structural members like RC slabs. In this paper, marble dust has been used in different ratios as partial replacement of cement in concrete mix. RC one-way slabs as well as plain concrete standard samples were cast to determine their mechanical properties i.e. compressive, tensile and flexural strengths, stiffness, first & ultimate load, crack patterns, modulus of elasticity, maximum deflection and durability etc. It was found that by increasing the dosage of marble dust in plain concrete samples, workability was decreased. Compressive and tensile strengths of concrete increased up to 7.5% replacement but decreased on further replacement. The permeability of concrete decreased with the addition of marble dust up to 10% replacement, then it increased. The behavior of one-way slabs showed an increase in the first crack load and ultimate failure capacity. Moreover, decrease in the deflection of slabs was observed with the increasing replacement of cement with marble dust. The resistance of concrete against corrosion of steel reinforcement also increased due to less migration of chloride ions. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) tests showed improved homogeneity and stiffness of concrete structure with the replacement of cement by marble dust.

Permeability of concrete with recycled aggregate coating treatment

The effective use of construction waste is of great significance to the construction of a sustainable society. This study investigated the permeability of recycled aggregate concrete with different qualities. The recycled aggregates were treated with crystallizing agent. The improvement effect of crystallization was evaluated by rapid chloride ion migration test and electron microscope observation. The results show that calcium silicate hydrate was generated by the reaction of crystallizer and hydration product in the adhesive mortar, which effectively improves the chloride ion impermeability of reclaimed aggregate concrete.

Design and Durability Assessment of Restoring Mortar for Concrete Heritage.

Interventions in concrete heritage deal with challenges related to conservation, and must be performed from an integrated restoration perspective. In addition to the material technical performance, the aesthetic compatibility between the repair and the structure, in terms of colour and texture, needs to be ensured. Therefore, the characterisation of the restoration mortar concerning colour match and aging, and the mechanical and durability performances, is essential. In this article, the long-term behaviour of restoration mortar, previously designed and produced by the addition of pigments to white and grey cement-based reference mortar, is evaluated. The durability properties, colour change due to aging, and service life are estimated and analysed. An experimental program is performed to characterise the following properties: (i) water capillary absorption; (ii) accelerated carbonation; (iii) migration of chloride ions; (iv) electrical resistivity; and (v) shrinkage. The colour evolution, when exposed to carbonation, is measured through image processing. The obtained results allow the establishment of a correlation between durability and design parameters. Finally, service life considering deterioration due to steel corrosion is estimated, considering the carbonation resistance and the chloride diffusion values. It is concluded that the W/C ratio influences not only most of the characterised parameters, but also the type and content of the pigment. Furthermore, no colour variation due to carbonation is detected.