South Asian Migrants Research Articles

Kazim AliNorthern Light: Power, Land, and the Memory of Water

Swedish, Finnish, Catalan, Norwegian, Afrikaans, and Hungarian by writers who are regarded as leading the genre’s edge in their respective countries (only Spain is represented more than once). From the collection’s first story, Italian author Luigi Musolino’s “Uironda” (a story about a divorced trucker reminiscent of the best culture-critical writing of Stephen King and the most nihilistic impulses of Thomas Ligotti), to the last, late Spanish author José María Latorre’s “Snapshot” (a macabre but humorous story of a man obsessed with snapping shots of himself in a photo booth, revealing the grim truth of what he is), The Valancourt Book of World Horror Stories is a grand guignol of horrific oddities from across the world, representing as many subgeneric impulses and terrifying plays with the genre’s possibilities as there are stories. Of particular interest and terrifying conclusion are Attila Veres’s “The Time Remaining” (Hungary), Flore Hazoum é’s “Menopause” (Ivory Coast), Marko Hautala’s “Pale Toes” (Finland), and Yvette Tan’s “All the Birds” (Philippines). Lars Ahn’s “The Collection” (Denmark), about a couple who discover they’ll do anything to prove they are right for each other, is probably my favorite of the bunch. But the range of stories presented suggests no one will be without something to love. Many of these stories are translated by Jenkins and Cagle themselves, a remarkable feat, and particular attention was paid in the anthologizing process to diversity of gender, nation, race, and colonial subjectivity . The stories come from Europe, Latin America, Asia, and Africa, some from minority languages like Catalan, and all are interested at some level in power disparities (poor/rich, men/women, colonizer/colonized ). Jenkins and Cagle have promised a second volume of The Valancourt Book of World Horror Stories, and I can only hope that future anthologies in the series Books in Review Kazim Ali Northern Light: Power, Land, and the Memory of Water Minneapolis. Milkweed Editions. 2021. 200 pages. ON A NIGHT WHEN icy winds blew south off Lake Erie and shook the windows of Kazim Ali’s house in Oberlin, he remembered the Canadian winters of his youth and searched online for images of Jenpeg—the company town he’d lived in as a child. He finds little online about Jenpeg . It’s mostly gone, the modest network of residential homes for employees at the hydroelectric dam under construction on the Nelson River. Other regional headlines piqued his interest instead. In Cross Lake, across the waters from Jenpeg and home to the First Nations Pimicikamak community, Chief Cathy Merrick had made headlines for serving eviction papers to Manitoba electric -utility giant Manitoba Hydro. Chief Merrick had contended that Manitoba Hydro, the province of Manitoba, and the federal government of Canada had not fulfilled their agreements in the Northern Flood Agreement, the 1977 treaty with five northern Bands under which Manitoba Hydro received easement rights to build the generating station. The Jenpeg Generating Station and the former town of Jenpeg where Ali lived were on Pimicikamak sovereign territory. Now, the dam his father had built was negatively impacting the Pimicikamak’s community and changing the biodiversity of their unceded lands and waters. He read more: last winter, in Cross Lake, six young people between the ages of fifteen and eighteen had died by suicide in the space of two months. The Pimicikamak had declared a mental-health emergency, and, Ali writes, “the Elders in the community had gathered and performed a sacred ceremony calling on the spirits of the land and water to assist.” In the weeks that followed, he couldn’t get Cross Lake out of his mind. The contemporary concerns in Cross Lake alarmed him and recalled the years that Ali, who is queer, Muslim, and the child of South Asian migrants, had spent traveling through the Palestinian territory in the West Bank teaching yoga and training yoga teachers. “I’d seen the impacts of occupation and political disenfranchisement up close,” Ali writes, and “the sociopolitical impacts of colonialism.” He wonders about his own family’s complicity in the dam that his father had worked on at the Jenpeg Generating Station. Reflecting on his family’s culpability in the...

Working Abroad while Families at Home: Negotiating Patriarchal Role for Women in South Asia: A Case Study of Gopalganj District of Bihar, India

In recent times, South Asia has emerged as the highest emigrant sending region to the Gulf. According to the United Nations Population Division (2017) 20.3 million stocks of migrants is in the Gulf countries, among the total number of South Asian migrants were 13millions which accounted for 63.9 percent of the total number of stock of migrants in the Persian Gulf. Due to this huge outpouring of workers, the region has also emerged as the largest receiver of remittances. It is interesting to note that these South Asian migrants are generally from the strata of societies where patriarchal structures are still in their rigidities as modernity has not yet penetrated there to change the feudal mentality, especially towards assigning women’s role in society. Patriarchy defines a limited socio-economic role for women. They undergo inflexible social processes and remain disadvantaged often affecting their rights, social status, mobility, autonomy, and decision-making capabilities. The physical absence of their husbands, the heads of the home, and the influx of remittance have positively impacted the lives of these women as they are now able to renegotiate their social roles and responsibilities. The process has helped to loosen the rigidities of the patriarchal structure. The objective of the research is to find out how the truancy of men has transformed and emancipated/empowered women in home countries. This study examines the literature on the socio-economic impact of male migration, and how it affects women's mobility and empowerment in left-behind families. This qualitative research evaluates women’s empowerment through one independent variable i.e., husband’s emigration, and three dependent variables, women's decision-making power, mobility, and autonomy in the absence of their husbands within the framework of gender empowerment. For the convenience of this research, 50 samples of Gulf emigrants’ families living in the Gopalgunj district of Bihar, India have been selected (Data is collected from the field through informal and conversational interviews, questionnaires, and convenience sampling is used). This research argues that a significant social transformation in gender roles has occurred due to husbands’ migration.

Epidemiology of diabetes among South Asians in the United States: lessons from the MASALA study.

South Asian individuals in the United States are at an increased risk of type 2 diabetes (T2DM); however, the mechanisms behind this are not well understood. The Mediators of Atherosclerosis in South Asians Living in America (MASALA) study is the only longitudinal cohort of South Asians in the United States and provides key insights as to the epidemiology of T2DM in South Asians. Evidence from the MASALA study suggests that South Asians experience a disproportionately high burden of prevalent and incident T2DM compared with members of other race/ethnic groups. Higher insulin resistance in South Asians, even with low body mass index (BMI), more impairment in insulin secretion, and greater deposition of ectopic fat likely play a role in T2DM etiology. Furthermore, South Asian migrants to the United States experience a range of factors related to acculturation, social networks, and religious beliefs, which may impact physical activity and dietary practices. Interventions to prevent T2DM in South Asians should include a focus on cultural factors related to health and should consider the complete mechanistic pathway and the relative contributions of insulin resistance, β cell dysfunction, and ectopic fat deposition on T2DM development in South Asians, particularly in those with lower BMI.

Highly Skilled South Asian Migrant Women in Australia: Hidden Economic Assets

Finding a balance between work and family life is challenging for many women, particularly migrant women living in Australia without family support. This study provides insights into their dilemmas, difficulties and strengths in terms of household responsibilities and employment pressures. Design: Qualitative, in-depth interviews were conducted with ten South Asian skilled mothers living in Canberra, Australia. Findings: Participants were positive about contributing to their family’s income and gaining financial independence. However, as skilled migrant women, they struggled to use their work skills due to increased demands of domestic responsibilities. They often negotiated work and family life by seeking low-prospect careers. Conclusion: The socio-cultural factors faced by South Asian migrant women have a significant impact on their work-life balance. Deskilling, increased work pressures and lack of support may negatively impact their career aspirations and well-being. Flexible policies can help mitigate these barriers to help migrant women maintain a work-life balance.

Cardiovascular Risk Calculators and their Applicability to South Asians.

Estimation of absolute cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk and tailoring therapies according to the estimated risk is a fundamental concept in the primary prevention of CVD is assessed in this study. Numerous CVD risk scores are currently available for use in various populations but unfortunately, none exist for South Asians who have much higher CVD risk as compared to their western counterparts. A literature search was done using PubMed and Google search engines to prepare a narrative review on this topic. Various currently available CVD risk scores and their pros and cons are summarized. The studies performed in native as well as migrant South Asians evaluating the accuracy of these risk scores for estimation of CVD risk are also summarized. The findings of these studies have generally been inconsistent, but it appears that the British risk scores (e.g. QRISK versions) may be more accurate because of inclusion of migrant South Asians in the derivation of these risk scores. However, the lack of any prospective study precludes our ability to draw any firm conclusions. Finally, the potential solution to these challenges, including the role of recalibration and subclinical atherosclerosis imaging, is also discussed. This review highlights the need to develop large, representative, prospectively followed databases of South Asians providing information on various CVD risk factors and their contribution to incident CVD. Such databases will not only allow the development of validated CVD risk scores for South Asians but will also enable application of machine-learning approaches to provide personalized solutions to CVD risk assessment and management in these populations.

Chronic hepatitis and HIV risks amongst Pakistani migrant men in a French suburb and insights into health promotion interventions: the ANRS Musafir qualitative study

BackgroundSeine-Saint-Denis is a deprived departement (French administrative unit) in the North-East of Paris, France, hosting the majority of South Asian migrants in France. In recent years, the number of migrants from Pakistan, which has a high prevalence of hepatitis C globally, increased. As a corollary, this study addressed the high proportion of Pakistani patients in the infectious diseases clinic of a local hospital, diagnosed with hepatitis C, but also hepatitis B and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). It explored genealogies and beliefs about hepatitis and HIV transmission, including community, sexual and blood risk behaviours. The aim was to understand the ways these risk factors reduce or intensify both en route and once in France, in order to devise specific forms of community health intervention.MethodsThe study took place at Avicenne University-Hospital in Seine-Saint-Denis, and its environs, between July and September 2018. The design of the study was qualitative, combining semi-structured interviews, a focus group discussion, and ethnographic observations. The sample of Pakistani participants was selected from those followed-up for chronic hepatitis C, B, and/or HIV at Avicenne, and who had arrived after 2010 in Seine-Saint-Denis.ResultsThirteen semi-structured interviews were conducted, until saturation was reached. All participants were men from rural Punjab province. Most took the Eastern Mediterranean human smuggling route. Findings suggest that vulnerabilities to hepatitis and HIV transmission, originating in Pakistan, are intensified along the migration route and perpetuated in France. Taboo towards sexuality, promiscuity in cohabitation conditions, lack of knowledge about transmission were amongst the factors increasing vulnerabilities. Participants suggested a number of culturally-acceptable health promotion interventions in the community, such as outreach awareness and testing campaigns in workplaces, health promotion and education in mosques, as well as web-based sexual health promotion tools to preserve anonymity.ConclusionsOur findings highlight the need to look at specific groups at risk, related to their countries of origin. In-depth understandings of such groups, using interdisciplinary approaches such as were employed here, can allow for culturally adapted, tailored interventions. However, French colour-blind policies do not easily permit such kinds of targeted approach and this limitation requires further debate.

Improving uptake of hepatitis B and hepatitis C testing in South Asian migrants in community and faith settings using educational interventions—A prospective descriptive study

BackgroundChronic viral hepatitis (CVH) is a leading contributor to the UK liver disease epidemic, with global migration from high prevalence areas (e.g., South Asia). Despite international guidance for testing high-risk groups in line with elimination targets, there is no consensus on how to achieve this. The objectives of this study were to assess the following: (1) the feasibility of recruiting South Asian migrants to view an educational film on CVH, (2) the effectiveness of the film in promoting testing and increasing knowledge of CVH, and (3) the methodological issues relevant to scale-up to a randomized controlled trial. MethodsSouth Asian migrants were recruited to view the film (intervention) in community venues (primary care, religious, community), with dried blood spot CVH testing offered immediately afterwards. Pre/post-film questionnaires assessed the effectiveness of the intervention. ResultsTwo hundred and nineteen first-generation migrants ≥18 years of age (53% female) were recruited to view the film at the following sites: religious, n = 112 (51%), community n = 98 (45%), and primary care, n = 9 (4%). One hundred and eighty-four (84%) underwent CVH testing; hepatitis B core antibody or hepatitis C antibody positivity demonstrated exposure in 8.5%. Pre-intervention (n = 173, 79%) and post-intervention (n = 154, 70%) questionnaires were completed. ConclusionsThis study demonstrated the feasibility of recruiting first-generation migrants to view a community-based educational film promoting CVH testing in this higher risk group, confirming the value of developing interventions to facilitate the global World Health Organization plan for targeted case finding and elimination, and a future randomized controlled trial. We highlight the importance of culturally relevant interventions including faith and culturally sensitive settings, which appear to minimize logistical issues and effectively engage minority groups, allowing ease of access to individuals ‘at risk’.

Genetic variation and differentiation among a native British and five migrant South Asian populations of the East Midlands (UK) based on CODIS forensic STR loci

Background Short Tandem Repeats (STRs) are widely used in population and forensic genetic studies. Aim The objective of this study was to document the level and extent of genetic variation of the FBI Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) STR loci (D3S1358, vWA, FGA, D8S1179, D21S11, D18S51, D5S818, D13S317, D7S820, D16S539, TH01, TPOX and CSF1PO) in 6 populations (British, Indian (Punjabis and Gujaratis), Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Sri Lankan) of the East Midlands (UK). There is a lack of genetic research on the migrant South Asian populations. Subjects and methods DNA samples (N = 603) were analysed for 13 autosomal forensic STR loci along with the amelogenin locus following standard protocols. Data were analysed for genetic variation and a range of forensic indices. Results All loci were polymorphic in all populations with a variable degree of variation. Average observed heterozygosity was highest in Bangladeshi (0.803) and lowest in Punjabi (0.761). FGA locus had the highest power of discrimination (PD) in most populations. Conclusion FGA locus was most polymorphic and discriminatory among migrant populations demonstrating it as the marker with the highest potential in forensic analyses. These results could be useful for population and forensic genomic studies.

Cigarette smoking and smokeless tobacco use among male south Asian migrants in the United Arab Emirates: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundFew data were available on smoking and smokeless tobacco use in South Asian migrants in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). This study aimed to identify the prevalence and correlates of cigarette smoking and smokeless tobacco use in male South Asian migrants in the UAE.MethodsWe used a cross-sectional study to recruit a random representative sample of male South Asian migrants, including Indian (n = 433), Pakistani (n = 383) and Bangladeshi (n = 559) nationalities. We used multivariable logistic regression analysis to identify significant correlates of cigarettes smoking and smokeless tobacco use.Results1375 South Asian migrant adult males participated in the study (response rate 76%) with a mean age of 34 years (SD ± 10). The overall prevalence of cigarette smoking was 28% (95%CI 25–30%) and smokeless tobacco use was 11% (95%CI 10–13%). The prevalence of current cigarette smoking was 21, 23, and 37% among participants from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, respectively. The prevalence of current smokeless tobacco use was 6, 12, and 16% for Indian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi participants, respectively. Among study participants, Bangladeshi nationality, hypertension, and alcohol use were significant correlates of current cigarette smoking. Significant correlates of smokeless tobacco use included increased age, less than college level education, alcohol use, and Pakistani or Bangladeshi nationality.ConclusionsCurrent smoking and smokeless tobacco use in South Asian migrants represent a significant public health burden in the UAE. Effective public health measures are needed to reduce tobacco use in this migrant population.

Speeding up for a Son: Sex Ratio Imbalances by Birth Interval Among South Asian Migrants to Canada

We use the 2001 and 2006 Canadian Census to study sex ratios at second birth among South Asian migrants, conditional on both the spacing between the first two children and the gender of the first-born. We find that South Asian women have an abnormally high share of boys after a first-born girl. Their sex ratio at birth is particularly skewed when the time span between the first two births is short. Several mechanisms may explain this finding. Couples with strong son preferences may attempt to conceive a boy fairly soon after a girl is born Sex-selective abortion may also happen more frequently after conceptions that occur fairly close to the birth of a first girl, because couples may limit the number of repeated abortions later in the interval. Even if sex ratios decrease over time within the birth spell, they still remain somewhat higher for live births spaced three years or longer.

A comparison of cardiovascular risk scores in native and migrant South Asian populations.

BackgroundSouth Asians have increased cardiovascular risk burden but little data exists comparing cardiovascular (CV) risk models in migrant and native South Asians. Our retrospective cohort study in patients presenting with first acute myocardial infarction(MI) compares the predictive value of CV risk scores in native and UK migrant South Asians.MethodsRetrospective cohort study of 80 UK-based patients of South Asian origin admitted with first presentation MI, excluding patients with known coronary artery disease. A retrospective 10-year CV risk was calculated for each patient using four cardiovascular risk models: Framingham Risk Score(RiskFRS), World Health Organisation(RiskWHO), American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association(ACC/AHA) (RiskACC/AHA), and 3rdJoint British Societies'(RiskJBS). Our aim was to assess agreement between these risk scores and conduct comparative analysis with native South Asians.ResultsRiskJBS identified the largest proportion of migrant South Asians as ‘high risk’ with 65% of subjects having an estimated >20% 10-year CV risk. RiskWHO provided the lowest 10-year CV risk estimates for South Asian migrants, identifying 21.25% of the migrant cohort as >20% risk of major CV event. Comparative analysis with the native South Asian cohort demonstrated RiskJBS as the risk model most likely to identify patients as ‘high'(>20%) risk(55.9%; p = 0.224).ConclusionsThis study represents the first analysis of predictive cardiovascular risk scores comparing migrant and native South Asian populations. Significant variation between the CV risk scores were observed, leading to inaccuracies in patient cardiovascular risk estimation. Given the growing burden of cardiovascular disease in Asian countries and different population characteristics, we highlight the need for population specific CV disease risk models whilst providing stimulus for further large-scale prospective studies.

10 Migrants caught in crises: Contexts, responses and innovation

10 Migrants caught in crises: Contexts, responses and innovation

High Prevalence of Strongyloides among South Asian Migrants in Primary Care-Associations with Eosinophilia and Gastrointestinal Symptoms.

Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms are a frequent reason for primary care consultation, and common amongst patients with strongyloidiasis. We conducted a prospective cohort and nested case control study in East London to examine the predictive value of a raised eosinophil count or of GI symptoms, for Strongyloides infection in South Asian migrants. We included 503 patients in the final analyses and all underwent a standardised GI symptom questionnaire, eosinophil count and Strongyloides serology testing. Positive Strongyloides serology was found in 33.6% in the eosinophilia cohort against 12.5% in the phlebotomy controls, with adjusted odds ratio of 3.54 (95% CI 1.88–6.67). In the GI symptoms cohort, 16.4% were seropositive but this was not significantly different compared with controls, nor were there associations between particular symptoms and Strongyloidiasis. Almost a third (35/115) of patients with a positive Strongyloides serology did not have eosinophilia at time of testing. Median eosinophil count declined post-treatment from 0.5 cells × 109/L (IQR 0.3–0.7) to 0.3 (0.1–0.5), p < 0.001. We conclude Strongyloides infection is common in this setting, and the true symptom burden remains unclear. Availability of ivermectin in primary care would improve access to treatment. Further work should clarify cost-effectiveness of screening strategies for Strongyloides infection in UK migrant populations.

A Case of South Asian Student Migrants in Kyrgyz Medical Institutes: Motivations, Policies, Issues and Challenges

A Case of South Asian Student Migrants in Kyrgyz Medical Institutes: Motivations, Policies, Issues and Challenges

PC-FACS

PC-FACS

Type 2 diabetes does not account for ethnic differences in exercise capacity or skeletal muscle function in older adults

Aims/hypothesisThe aim of this study was to compare exercise capacity, strength and skeletal muscle perfusion during exercise, and oxidative capacity between South Asians, African Caribbeans and Europeans, and determine what effect ethnic differences in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes has on these functional outcomes.MethodsIn total, 708 participants (aged [mean±SD] 73 ± 7 years, 56% male) were recruited from the Southall and Brent Revisited (SABRE) study, a UK population-based cohort comprised of Europeans (n = 311) and South Asian (n = 232) and African Caribbean (n = 165) migrants. Measurements of exercise capacity using a 6 min stepper test (6MST), including measurement of oxygen consumption ( dot{V}{mathrm{O}}_2 ) and grip strength, were performed. Skeletal muscle was assessed using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS); measures included changes in tissue saturation index (∆TSI%) with exercise and oxidative capacity (muscle oxygen consumption recovery, represented by a time constant [τ]). Analysis was by multiple linear regression.ResultsWhen adjusted for age and sex, in South Asians and African Caribbeans, exercise capacity was reduced compared with Europeans ( dot{V}{mathrm{O}}_2 [ml min−1 kg−1]: β = −1.2 [95% CI –1.9, −0.4], p = 0.002, and β −1.7 [95% CI –2.5, −0.8], p < 0.001, respectively). South Asians had lower and African Caribbeans had higher strength compared with Europeans (strength [kPa]: β = −9 [95% CI –12, −6), p < 0.001, and β = 6 [95% CI 3, 9], p < 0.001, respectively). South Asians had greater decreases in TSI% and longer τ compared with Europeans (∆TSI% [%]: β = −0.9 [95% CI –1.7, −0.1), p = 0.024; τ [s]: β = 11 [95% CI 3, 18], p = 0.006). Ethnic differences in dot{V}{mathrm{O}}_2 and grip strength remained despite adjustment for type 2 diabetes or HbA1c (and fat-free mass for grip strength). However, the differences between Europeans and South Asians were no longer statistically significant after adjustment for other possible mediators or confounders (including physical activity, waist-to-hip ratio, cardiovascular disease or hypertension, smoking, haemoglobin levels or β-blocker use). The difference in ∆TSI% between Europeans and South Asians was marginally attenuated after adjustment for type 2 diabetes or HbA1c and was also no longer statistically significant after adjusting for other confounders; however, τ remained significantly longer in South Asians vs Europeans despite adjustment for all confounders.Conclusions/interpretationReduced exercise capacity in South Asians and African Caribbeans is unexplained by higher rates of type 2 diabetes. Poorer exercise tolerance in these populations, and impaired muscle function and perfusion in South Asians, may contribute to the higher morbidity burden of UK ethnic minority groups in older age.

Transnational History and Colonial Records: Locating Bengali Mobility in the British Malaya

By the late 1980s, some historians began to identify their works as transnational history – which dealt with the past human mobility, and the circulation of goods, information, and ideas across the globe. Colonial records are an essential source for reconstructing transnational history. However, some of the colonial census-makers were not aware of the racial identity of transmigrants during the population enumeration. They categorised the transmigrants under different umbrella heads, and due to their stringent systems of cataloguing, the identity of diverse migrants was misplaced or generalised in census reports. Therefore, these certain ambiguities complicate the reconstruction of the transnational history of some specific migrant communities. With the impact of British colonialism in present-day South and Southeast Asia, South Asian multi-ethnic people, including Bengalis, migrated to Malaya. Initially, the British colonial administrators categorised the South Asian multi-racial migrants under different heads including “Bengalis &amp; c.”, “Tamils &amp; c.” and “Indians”. These umbrella terms in colonial records create problems in reconstructing the transnational history of anyone specific race from South Asia, such as the Bengali. Through a reinterpretation of colonial documents, empirical evidence, and oral interviews, this paper attempts to locate the Bengali migrants in British Malaya.

Local and Global, but Not national: Citizenship Education of South Asian Migrant Students in Post‐Colonial Hong Kong

This article examines how schools in Hong Kong attempt to craft South Asian migrant students into desirable citizens and how the youths understand themselves as members of Hong Kong and of a global community. The contestation has to do both with how South Asians are viewed in Hong Kong and with how post‐colonial Hong Kong is related to China. The process of citizen‐making of transnational youths, I argue, is best understood at the local–national–global intersection.

An examination of how to engage migrants in the research process: building trust through an ‘insider’ perspective

ABSTRACT Introduction: Ensuring all members of society can equally participate in research and the provision of services is a challenging goal. Increased migration has been mirrored by media narratives of social threat, leaving many migrants feeling differentiated and distrustful of mainstream society. Objectives: We explore how migrant and ethnic minority populations can be given the opportunity to participate in the research process. In this work, we iteratively and jointly developed a range of engagement strategies that adopt an ‘insider’ approach; seeking to eliminate feelings of differentiation and ‘otherness’ by establishing mutual trust. Design: Recruitment activities were carried out with 8 focus groups of first-generation South Asian migrants (the largest ethnic minority group in England). Our analysis was grounded in the broad principles of action research with reflective evaluation of our recruitment process using field observations and relevant focus group data; asking whether we tackled barriers to engagement. Results: Our findings show that ‘otherness’ can be reduced by establishing a trustworthy researcher-community relationship, but also that this relationship is complex, and needs to acknowledge residual mistrust. Alongside, researchers need to enable opportunities for empowered interaction, with flexible strategies to negotiate potential power divides. Conclusions: We can successfully create opportunities for engagement but there is no ‘one size fits all’. Engagement requires tailored approaches that embrace flexibility, and position both engagement and non-engagement as positive and empowered choices.

Saher Selod, Forever Suspect: Racialized Surveillance of Muslim Americans in the War on Terror

American Religion 27, no. 1 (Fall 2019), pp. 155–157 Copyright © 2019, The Trustees of Indiana University • doi: 10.2979/amerreli.1.1.11 Book Review Saher Selod, Forever Suspect: Racialized Surveillance of Muslim Americans in the War on Terror (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2018) Kayla Renée Wheeler Grand Valley State University, Allendale, USA Forever Suspect by Saher Selod examines the racialization of Islam post-9/11, as well as the state and private citizen surveillance that followed. Specifically, Selod explores how racialized surveillance has impacted Arab and South Asian Muslims’ relationship to whiteness and their position within the US racial hierarchy . Her research is based on forty-eight interviews with South Asian and Arab Muslims in Chicago and the Dallas/Fort Worth area between 2009 and 2012. Selod’s primary conversation partners are Moustafa Bayoumi, Nadine Naber, Neil Garner, and Junaid Rana, who have all worked on the racialization of Islam and anti-Muslim sentiment. Selod adds to this conversation by providing a nuanced, multi-layered definition of racialization, which moves beyond phenotypes to also include clothing, names, and behaviors. Drawing from sociology, gender studies, and critical race theory, she defines racialization as “the process by which bodies become racial in their lived realities because of biological and/or cultural traits as a result of the intersection and cooperation between ideologies, policies, laws, and social interactions that results in the denial of equal treatment in society” (23). Additionally, her exploration of how gender dictates both how Muslim men and women are surveilled differently, as well as how they respond to surveillance contributes to the field of sociology of religion. American Religion 1:1 156 Forever Suspect is broken up into five chapters. The first chapter provides an overview of Arab and South Asian migration to the United States, beginning in the early twentieth century. This chapter highlights how once distinct ethnic groups have begun to mirror each other, collapsing under the unified category of “Muslim.” Through providing a migration history, Selod shows how historically the US government has deemed Islam and whiteness to be incompatible. Chapter two explores the phenomenon of “flying while Muslim.” Selod highlights how Muslims travelers are treated as national security threats who need to be monitored, rather than as citizens in need of protection (50). Surveillance happens at the institutional level—in the case of airports, via the Transportation Security Administration (TSA)—as well as the individual level, a point that Selod returns to in chapter four. Selod notes that airport surveillance is gendered. Her male interlocutors were put on lists that forced them to undergo additional security screenings—subject to multiple “random searches” or prevented them from flying altogether. Women were only subject to multiple random screenings if they were with Muslim men. Otherwise, only women who wore hijabs or jilbabs were subject to additional screening at the security checkpoint. This observation affirms her argument that clothing acts as a racial marker of difference. Chapter two concludes with an exploration of the self-surveillance practices Muslims engage in airports and on planes to prevent being targeted including not praying or speaking Arabic. I found chapter three to be the most interesting due to its focus on interpersonal relationships. Here, Selod explores the ways in which private citizens participate in surveillance under the guise of the Department of Homeland Security’s “If you see something, say something” campaign. Private citizens are encouraged to monitor each other for suspicious behavior, although as Selod notes, the state never defines what constitutes suspicious behavior. As such, individuals rely on stereotypes and misconceptions of Islam and Muslims. This too, is a gendered practice. While Muslim men experience the brunt of state surveillance , covered Muslim women are disproportionately affected by private citizen surveillance. Muslim women who wear hijabs, visibly marking their religious identity, are simultaneously seen as oppressed and as threats to Western values. Covered Muslim women are often verbally and physically assaulted. They have their citizenship questioned and must navigate the non-Muslim gaze, which alters how they move in public spaces. Selod found that Muslim men only had these types of encounters when they were with visibly Muslim women. While her study focuses on the...