Middle Stone Age Sites Research Articles

The Taphonomy and Subsistence Strategies from the Final Middle Stone Age Occupation at Sibudu Cave, South Africa

This study examined the faunal assemblage from Sibudu Cave, a final Middle Stone Age site in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. A two-part hierarchical method was employed, with the assemblage's taphonom...

Life Histories and Dynamic Objects: The Klasies River Mouth Collection

AbstractKlasies River Mouth, a Middle Stone Age archaeological site along the southern coast of South Africa, has long held an iconic status within the field of archaeology, for many reasons. In the four decades since its original excavation, the site's artifact collection has demonstrated dynamic characteristics as the artifacts are analyzed, interpreted, and reinterpreted. The site and its collection became a standard (both scientifically and culturally) for comparing other Middle Stone Age sites. The collection, however, does more than just provide a comparative sample for archaeologists. The collection is a way to trace identity and shifting methodological and theoretical paradigms for Pleistocene archaeology. The life history of Klasies River Mouth pairs the physical materiality of the collection with its subsequent cultural (and disciplinary) cachet.

Changing collecting strategies of the clam Donax serra Röding (Bivalvia: Donacidae) during the Pleistocene at Pinnacle Point, South Africa

South Africa's Middle Stone Age (MSA) coastal sites have played a prominent role in documenting early evidence of systematic shellfish collection and adaptation to aquatic environments in the context of anatomically modern humans. Pinnacle Point 13B cave is important among these MSA sites not only because it holds the earliest yet known evidence for human use of marine resources (∼162 ka [thousands of years ago]), but because shellfish observations have been integrated more fully into discussions of MSA adaptations. This is particularly the case of Donax serra procurement on sandy beaches, where skills that are usually indicative of an aspect of behavioural modernity (in the context of hunting) were apparently used. In this paper, D. serra from 110 to 91 ka old assemblages are studied in detail by way of metrical analyses and relevant biological and ecological literature of this species. Existing seasonality studies derived from oxygen isotope analyses on the same molluscs are incorporated into this reconstruction. Shellfish appear to have been collected in winter over many millennia when D. serra are most nutritious due to high gonad content. A dramatic change in collection strategies took place during the same millennia-long period. Earliest systematic collection of D. serra consisted of mostly unselective procurement of animals in terms of shell size along the tidal gradient and beach depth. In later visits, people collected mostly larger individuals by narrowing their collection to the mid-intertidal. This change increased the efficiency of D. serra collection, which reflects a positive adaptive behaviour that endured into Later Stone Age (LSA) times.

Non-destructive analysis of archaeological ochre: a preliminary application to the Middle Stone Age site of Diepkloof Rock Shelter (South Africa)

A number of ochre pieces were found from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in southern Africa, leading to recent debates about the use of this material. The relevant question behind such a debate lies in the role of ochre in early modern human societies. Technical, socio-economical and symbolic aspects might be associated with ochre processing and use. Ochre pieces showing signs of use-wear found on MSA sites are the main witnesses of such activities. That is why our work has focused on the study of ochre pieces, especially on the issue of the raw material selection. The relevance of non-destructive methods in order to determine the mineralogical nature of ochre is discussed here. Scanning electron microscopyenergy- dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM EDS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were used. Based on careful considerations of the association of different features, such as the elementary composition or the fabric, we showed that under certain conditions surface analyses are very useful to assign samples into mineralogical categories.

Assessing the Accidental Versus Deliberate Colour Modification of Shell Beads: a Case Study on PerforatedNassarius kraussianusfrom Blombos Cave Middle Stone Age levels

Colour plays an eminent role in beadwork. Colour modifications are reported on early shell beads from Middle Stone Age sites. However, identifying the colouring agent and demonstrating the intentional nature of the colouring process is not straightforward. Here, we provide analytical data on colour and structural modifications observed on Nassarius kraussianus (Nk) collected in modern thanatocoenoses and on shells of the same species experimentally heated in oxidizing and reductive atmospheres. Comparison with Nk shell beads from the 72 ka old Middle Stone Age levels of Blombos Cave, South Africa, and contextual analysis of other malacological remains from the same levels that were not used as ornaments identify the mechanisms responsible for the change of colour in modern Nk thanatocoenoses and heated shells, and show that although some Nk shell beads were heated, intentional heat treatment of shell beads is not demonstrated.

Ochre Use in the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu, South Africa: Grinding, Rubbing, Scoring and Engraving

Many Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites have evidence of the regular collection and use of ochre. Sibudu (KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa) has a large MSA ochre assemblage of over 9000 pieces from layers dating between ~77 ka and ~38 ka. There are 682 pieces with signs of use. All usetraces were examined and activity categories were defined based on published ochre experiments. The most frequent markings on ochre pieces are grinding striations that are smoothed by subsequent rubbing. Grinding and rubbing also occur independently on many pieces. Scored pieces are rare, but are more common in the pre-Still Bay (~77 ka) industry than elsewhere in the sequence. Some scored pieces may represent deliberate engravings. Markings acquired during powder-production are most numerous in the assemblage. Powder was mostly produced from bright-red pieces, but scoring was mainly performed on brown-red pieces. Pieces with mica inclusions are not common, but were favoured for powder production. Ochre powder was used as an aggregate in hafting adhesives, but other possible applications are as paint or as a substance to aid hide tanning.

Testing a taphonomic predictive model of edge damage formation with Middle Stone Age points from Pinnacle Point Cave 13B and Die Kelders Cave 1, South Africa

The interpretation of taphonomic and behavioral lithic edge wear formation is complicated by equifinality of edge damage morphologies. Rejecting hypotheses that edge damage originates from taphonomic processes is standard practice for many archaeological analyses and should be incorporated into lithic use-wear more explicitly. Quantitative hypothesis testing is advocated here, and facilitated by recording edge wear observations in an image referenced GIS spatial environment. A taphonomic predictive model was generated using trampling and flint-knapping experiments. Trampling experiments were conducted to determine how edge damage is distributed along tool edges due to non-use related, taphonomic processes. Experiments designed to test the assumption that undisturbed flakes do not preferentially orient either surface side-up (dorsal or ventral) were performed. Furthermore, it is argued that artifact orientation data, if available, can also be used to assess whether the frequency of edge damage is correlated with the degree of disturbance. This taphonomic predictive model is then statistically compared with frequency and distribution edge damage data from two South African Middle Stone Age sites. The research presented here illustrates the usefulness of edge damage distribution analysis for accounting for taphonomic processes as causal agents of edge damage formation, and strengthening behavioral interpretations regarding tool function. Bringing tool wear observations into a uniform spatial structure is one avenue for standardization of lithic use-wear analysis.

Tortoise taphonomy and tortoise butchery patterns at Blombos Cave, South Africa

Tortoises are one of the most common faunal components at many Palaeolithic archaeological sites across the Old World. They provide protein, fat, and other ‘animal’ resources in a ‘collectable’ package. However, for most sites their interpretation as human food debris is based only on association, rather than demonstrated through taphonomic analysis. Because of their very different anatomical configuration compared to mammals, it is difficult to conduct such analyses by directly applying the taphonomic methods used to interpret large mammal assemblages. Tortoise-specific taphonomic analysis is presented here for the Still Bay layers at the important Middle Stone Age (MSA) site of Blombos Cave (BBC), Western Cape, South Africa. Research on MSA subsistence systems at sites such as BBC has almost exclusively relied on analysis of large ungulate remains, in spite of the fact that many of these key sites contain equal or greater numbers of tortoise fragments. In this analysis we show that human modification is common on the BBC tortoises, and that there are consistent patterns of fragmentation and burning that indicate set processing sequences including cooking while in the shell, hammerstone percussion, and human chewing of limbs. The almost exclusive dominance of the angulate tortoise, Chersina angulata, is confirmed by full skeletal element analyses rather than only counts of single elements such as humeri. The sex distribution can be reconstructed for this species, and is female-biased. For all tortoise assemblages, taxonomic and skeletal element abundance data should be calculated from a sample of complete elements, or at minimum the entoplastron and humerus. A sample of shell and limb/girdle elements should also be subjected to microscopic bone surface modification analysis, as modifications are often rare or subtle but highly informative. Using this approach, analysis of breakage patterns, bone surface modification, and burning patterns can be understood together to specifically reconstruct tortoise collection, processing, and human dietary significance across a range of archaeological sites.

Digital imaging technology and experimental archeology: a methodological framework for the identification and interpretation of fire modified rock (FMR)

This paper presents the results of a series of experiments for the identification and analysis of fire modified rock (FMR). FMR is a common but frequently overlooked artifact type. Experiments were conducted simulating the effects of different hypothetical burning scenarios on rocks similar to those found in a South African Middle Stone Age site. A digital imaging method was then used to quantify FMR color values, designed to limit intra-analyst bias. Statistical tests and a blind test suggest that unburned rocks and experimental FMR can be separated statistically based on physical appearance. Two burning scenario models, based on measured experimental data were applied to archaeological FMR from a South African Middle Stone Age site named Pinnacle Point 5-6 (PP5-6) and show that the archaeological samples are not statistically different from a simulated campfire and possibly a lithic raw material heat-treatment fire.

Middle Palaeolithic occupation in the Thar Desert during the Upper Pleistocene: the signature of a modern human exit out of Africa?

The Thar Desert marks the transition from the Saharo-Arabian deserts to the Oriental biogeographical zone and is therefore an important location in understanding hominin occupation and dispersal during the Upper Pleistocene. Here, we report the discovery of stratified Middle Palaeolithic assemblages at Katoati in the north-eastern Thar Desert, dating to Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 5 and the MIS 4–3 boundary, during periods of enhanced humidity. Hominins procured cobbles from gravels at the site as evidenced by early stages of stone tool reduction, with a component of more formalised point production. The MIS 5c assemblages at Katoati represent the earliest securely dated Middle Palaeolithic occupation of South Asia. Distinctive artefacts identified in both MIS 5 and MIS 4–3 boundary horizons match technological entities observed in Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in South Asia, Arabia and Middle Stone Age sites in the Sahara. The evidence from Katoati is consistent with arguments for the dispersal of Homo sapiens populations from Africa across southern Asia using Middle Palaeolithic technologies.

Sites on the landscape: Paleoenvironmental context of late Pleistocene archaeological sites from the Lake Victoria basin, equatorial East Africa

Open-air archaeological sites record only a small fraction of the behavioral traces of mobile forager populations. Whereas caves and rockshelters were often occupied at least in part for protection from the elements, the reasons why human foragers occupied other places on the landscape (however briefly) are varied and not always readily recoverable. We develop a framework for interpreting human use of the landscape and modeling occupation of open-air sites using the archaeological and paleoenvironmental record of Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites from Rusinga and Mfangano Islands, located near the eastern margin of Lake Victoria. Paleoenvironmental reconstructions using fossil faunas suggest an arid grassland setting unlike the present. Paleoecological modeling of the habitats of extant and extinct bovids, combined with GIS-based reconstructions of lake level change, indicate that human occupation of these sites coincided with substantial declines in the level of Lake Victoria. During this time, both Rusinga and Mfangano would have been connected to the mainland and represented local topographic highs within an extensive grassland. Geological, ecological, and ethnobotanical observations suggest that these topographic high points would likely have been important sources of stone raw material, fresh water, and a variety of plant resources for food, fuel, and other purposes. In contrast, the grassy lowland plains were probably exploited primarily as a source of large game, which included numerous species of large gregarious grazers, several of which may have followed now extinct migration routes.

The context, form and significance of the MSA engraved ostrich eggshell collection from Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Western Cape, South Africa

Broken ostrich eggshells are commonly found in Middle Stone Age sites of southern Africa, presumably collected for food consumption, and later used as artefacts. At Diepkloof Rock Shelter, Middle Stone Age inhabitants used ostrich eggshells as a medium to convey abstract depictions. Since 1998, excavations at Diepkloof have recovered 408 engraved pieces of ostrich eggshells. The study of these shows that Diepkloof inhabitants applied a restricted set of geometric engraving patterns, with the dominance of 2 main motifs, one using a hatched band and the other sub-parallel to converging lines. These motifs coexisted, but shifted in frequency toward the latter through time. Together with evidence that ostrich eggshells were used as containers, these patterns support the hypothesis that engravings were made with respect to clear but flexible social conventions and were part of a complex system of visual and symbolic communication. Since our last report (Texier et al., 2010), a few engraved pieces have been found in lower stratigraphic units, expanding substantially the time-range of the engraving practice on ostrich eggshells at Diepkloof. The earliest engravings appear at the end of the Early Howiesons Poort phase, but become numerous only during the Intermediate and Late phases of the Howiesons Poort. The collection from Diepkloof is presently unique and likely underlines the existence of regional traditions within the Howiesons Poort. Interestingly, and significantly in our view, the engraving disappears at the same time as the Howiesons Poort technology. We argue that this disappearance may reflect a modification in the way late Middle Stone Age inhabitants interacted with one another.

The Middle Stone Age of the Central Sahara: Biogeographical opportunities and technological strategies in later human evolution

The Central Sahara is an area of great interest in human evolution partly because it currently exhibits some of the most extreme desert conditions in the world, and partly because of its geographical location – in a nexus of relationships with sub-Saharan Africa, Mediterranean Africa, and Western Asia. Fieldwork in the Ubari sand sea and the Messak (Fazzan, Libya) through the Desert Migrations Project has identified numerous Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites both along the shores of interdunal palaeolakes and on the mountainous plateaus of the area, such as the Messak Settafet. In this paper, we describe some of the evidence for the MSA in Fazzan, and discuss it in the context of the African MSA more generally. We show that this MSA record exhibits considerable typological and technological variation, and discuss the implications for hypotheses relating to the colonization of desert environment and the expansion of hominins out of sub-Saharan Africa.

Observations on Middle Stone Age human teeth from Klasies River Main Site, South Africa

The human fossils, artefacts and faunal remains from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) deposits of Klasies River Main Site have featured prominently in discussions of the evolution of modern human morphology and the emergence of human behavioral modernity. Nearly 40 human fossils were uncovered by John Wymer's (1967–1968) excavations, and subsequent work by Hilary Deacon (1984–1995) has produced an additional dozen specimens. Many of the latter have been described, but most of the dental remains have been afforded only cursory mention and provisional identification. These specimens are documented here, and questions of individual association among some of the fossils from Wymer's excavations are also addressed. Three teeth provide the first indisputable evidence for juvenile individuals in the deposit. The proportion of juvenile to adult remains in the MSA levels at Klasies is notably lower than in other penecontemporaneous South African coastal MSA sites such as Die Kelders Cave 1 and Blombos Cave, where the proportion of juveniles is seemingly in closer keeping with coastal, geographically proximate Later Stone Age sites such as Oakhurst Shelter and Matjes River Cave. The sizes of most of the recently identified human teeth from Klasies seem to affirm at least one arguable aspect of morphometric modernity in the MSA at this site in the form of a tendency for tooth size reduction.

Cosmogenic nuclide age constraints on Middle Stone Age lithics from Niassa, Mozambique

The late phases of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in the East African Rift System (EARS) are known for their evolutionary shifts and association with bottlenecks, transcontinental expansion, and climatic fluctuations. The chronology of MSA sites contemporaneous with these eco-demographic upheavals is uncertain because of the scarcity of datable sites and the poor understanding of their depositional and erosional histories. We apply terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide dating in a stratigraphic section with a complex exposure history to the study of the Luchamange Beds, a widespread sedimentological unit underlying MSA sites from the shores of Lake Niassa (Mozambican EARS). We use an innovative approach, which may be applicable elsewhere, to calculate their age using a Monte Carlo-based Bayesian model that links depth profiles of 26Al and 10Be, and uses other geomorphic and cosmogenic nuclide age constraints on episodic erosion and burial. The age of the basal Luchamange Beds is 42 + 77/−15ka, and the MSA occupation on top is 29 + 3/−11 ka. These dates suggest temporal overlap between MSA and the earliest Later Stone Age and diversity in cultural manifestations at the end of the MSA.

The Exploitation of Plant Resources by Early Homo sapiens: The Phytolith Record from Pinnacle Point 13B Cave, South Africa

The capacity to detect remnants of fire usage in archaeological sites, along with a better understanding of its use by prehistoric populations, can help us to shed light on hominin cognition, social organization, and technology. The application of phytolith studies to understand fire and its use can be widely applicable since plants typically contain phytoliths that are identifiable to different taxonomic levels. Pinnacle Point 13B (PP13B) is one of several South African Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites that shows an abundant presence of lenses of burnt material and intact hearths. Phytolith analyses at PP13B have been used to identify the types of plants used as fuel in the hearths. The phytoliths overall show high levels of alteration, and varying alteration is used to identify areas with higher alkaline conditions related to dripping water. In some areas of the site, there is excellent preservation of multicellular structures from the epidermal leaves of dicotyledonous plants, suggesting in situ structures with practically no chemical or post‐depositional alteration. A notable pattern is the abundance of dicotyledonous leaves from the rear of the cave, which might indicate specific leaf‐fuels for the fires, short‐term fire activities, or other actions such as cooking.

Quantification of climate and vegetation from southern African Middle Stone Age sites – an application using Late Pleistocene plant material from Sibudu, South Africa

In southern Africa numerous Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites document important steps in technological and behavioural development leading to significant changes in the lifeways of modern humans. To assess whether these cultural changes and developments may be related to environmental changes we need to ascertain past environments. To do this we apply a new quantitative method, the GIS-based Coexistence Approach (CAGIS), on fossil plant material from the MSA site Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Previous qualitative environmental interpretations of the fossil fauna and flora of the site remain ambiguous. Because much of the material is anthropogenically introduced, it is difficult to distinguish between the effects of natural changes in the local vegetation and behavioural changes of the people that inhabited the shelter. CAGIS can be applied to such biased assemblages and seems to be an adequate method to directly quantify palaeoclimate and vegetation parameters at an archaeological site.The CAGIS analysis shows that during the Howiesons Poort (HP) Industry winters were slightly colder and drier than present, whereas during summer, temperatures and precipitation were similar to today. Post-HP winters were drier and colder than present, presumably colder than during the HP. Summer temperatures remained the same, but summer precipitation decreased from the HP to post-HP. Vegetation cover was less than today, may be even less than during the HP. The late MSA was observably warmer than the older periods, especially during winter. At the same time summer precipitation slightly increased and vegetation became more dense, but still remained generally open similar to today's anthropogenic landscape.Generally, climatic changes are most pronouncedly reflected in winter temperature parameters, especially in minimum winter temperatures, and to a lesser extent by changes in summer precipitation. The observed ecological trends seem to be affected mainly by variations through time in winter temperatures. This refinement of interpretation was not discernible using previous methods for analysing the Sibudu data.

Late Pleistocene artefacts and fauna from Rusinga and Mfangano islands, Lake Victoria, Kenya

Surveys and excavations in 2009–2011 recovered fossil and artefact assemblages from late Pleistocene sediments on Rusinga and Mfangano islands (Lake Victoria, Kenya). Radiometric age estimates suggest that the Rusinga material dates to between 100 and 33 kya, whereas that from Mfangano may date to ≥35 kya. The preservation of a large and diverse suite of vertebrate fossils is unusual for Pleistocene sites in the Lake Victoria region and the composition of the faunal assemblages from both islands strongly suggest an open, arid, grassland setting very different from that found in western Kenya today. Middle Stone Age (MSA) artefacts from Rusinga and possible Later Stone Age (LSA) or MSA/LSA assemblages from Mfangano are distinct from Lupemban MSA sites characteristic of the Lake Victoria region and instead share a number of typological and technological features with late Pleistocene sites from open grassland settings in the East African Rift System. This highlights the complex roles that shifting environments, as well as temporal change, may have played in the development of regional variation among Equatorial African artefact assemblages in the Pleistocene.

Optical dating of quartz and feldspars: A comparative study from Wonderkrater, a Middle Stone Age site of South Africa

While quartz is the most used dosimeter, it has been shown that feldspars provide many advantages over quartz, essentially in terms of reproducibility and sensitivity. Unfortunately, they also suffer from instability in their luminescence signal, known as anomalous fading, which leads to an underestimation in age if no correction is applied in a spring and peat mound archaeological context, we explore the possibility of obtaining a single age for both quartz and feldspar fractions from the same sample. This work first highlights the importance of selecting two dosimeters in an archaeological or geological context. It also put in the foreground the time-consuming but gratifying approach of comparing large and small aliquots. Finally, we present feldspars with a barely detectable and measurable fading rate, whatever the protocol applied, suggesting that the solution to anomalous fading might be to find feldspar grains that do not fade.

Size matters: Preliminary results from an experimental approach to interpret Middle Stone Age hearths

This paper reports on ten fire experiments and their significance for interpreting hearths from the Middle Stone Age site, Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The experiments were conducted on four different substrata and four wood taxa were used in the experiments. Four of the experiments consisted of a single fire, while the other experiments consisted of multiple fires on top of each other. The experimental fires produced hearth areas of ∼962.1–∼1661.9 cm² and hearth depths of 3–12 cm. Hearth size and depth do not correlate. Hearth area seems to correlate with the fuel load used in a hearth, and it is argued that this can be used in interpretations of fire use at an archaeological site. Nine hearths from the same layer at Sibudu are used as examples, and it is argued that variation in hearth area indicates variation in hearth use. Some hearths at Sibudu were possibly only used once, whereas others represent long-term use and/or repeated reloading of the same hearth.