Middle Socioeconomic Status Group Research Articles

Divergent trends in suicide by socio-economic status in Australia

This study investigated secular trends in socio-economic status (SES) differentials in Australian suicide (1979-2003), which includes overall declines in male suicide from 1998. Suicide rates were stratified by approximate equal-population quintiles of area-based SES for the period 1979-2003 and examined across five quinquennia, centred on each Australian Census from 1981 to 2001, to determine if (1) SES differentials in suicide have persisted over time, and (2) if SES differentials have widened or narrowed. Suicide rates (per 100,000) were adjusted for confounding by sex, age, country-of-birth, and urban-rural residence using Poisson regression models, and secular changes in SES differentials were assessed using trend tests on suicide rate ratios (low to high SES quintiles). Socio-economic status (SES) differentials persisted across the study period for both males and females after adjusting for the effects of age, migrant status, and urban-rural residence, with the largest differences between low and high SES groups evident in males, and especially young males (20-34 years). For males, suicide rates increased significantly in all SES groups until 1998, before diverging significantly in the most recent 5-year period, particularly in younger males (P<0.0001). In young males, suicide rates in the most recent period increased in the low SES group from 44.8 in 1994-1998 to 48.6 in 1999-2003 (an 8% increase). In contrast, suicide rates in the middle SES group decreased from a peak of 37.3 to 33.5 (a 10% decrease), and in the high SES group from a peak of 33.0 to 27.9 (a 15% decrease). A similar statistically significant divergence of a lesser magnitude was also evident in all age males and younger females (20-34 years). This study shows that SES differentials in suicide persisted in Australia for most of the period 1979-2004. The decline in suicide in young males in the most recent quinquennium was limited to middle and high SES groups, while the low SES group displayed a continued increase. The continued increase in suicide in low SES males has implications for social and economic intervention and suicide control programs.

Implication of socio-economic status on the prevalence of overweight and obesity in Greek adults: the ATTICA study

Background: Although ooverweight and obesity are considered as a health problem that affects millions of people worldwide, the implication of socio-economic status (SES) in these healthy conditions have rarely been investigated. We evaluated the associations of overweight and obesity with SES, in a population based sample of Greek adults. Methods: During 2001–2002 we randomly enrolled 1514 men (18–87 years old) and 1528 women (18–89 years old), stratified by the age–sex distribution (census 2001) of the Attica area, Greece. We studied several demographic, anthropometric, lifestyle, dietary and bio-clinical factors of the participants. SES (low, middle and high) was defined through the education and economical level of the participants. Results: The prevalence of overweight and obesity was 53 and 20% in men, and 31 and 15% in women, respectively, while an increase in the prevalence of obesity was observed with progressing age. Both men and women in the higher SES group had significantly lower prevalence of obesity as compared to the middle and lower SES group ( p < 0.001). However, multivariate analysis showed that the observed associations between SES and obesity were mainly explained by differences in physical activity status and energy intake of the participants. Conclusion: Overweight and obesity seems to be a serious health problem, affecting more prominently people in the lower SES. However, eating and other lifestyle habits mainly explained the association between SES and obesity.

Racial or ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in elevated C-reactive protein: identifying high risk groups and mediating factors

African Americans and Mexican Americans, as well as those with low socioeconomic status (SES), may be at risk for elevated C-reactive protein (CRP). To our knowledge, no research has looked at the interaction between race or ethnicity and SES on elevated CRP, or at factors that may place racial, ethnic, and SES groups at greater risk. We hypothesized that racial or ethnic minorities with low SES would have the greatest risk of elevated CRP, and that such associations would be due to factors known to be associated with elevated CRP. Data from adult (age ≥ 20 years) women ( n = 1990) and men ( n = 1770) from the Fourth National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES IV; 1999–2000) were used to estimate the odds of elevated CRP (>3 mg/L, as measured by high-sensitivity latex-enhanced turbidimetric assay) in the different racial or ethnic and SES (measured by educational attainment) groups. Body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, physical activity, smoking, alcohol consumption, fiber consumption, and hormone replacement therapy (in women only) were examined as potential effect modifying factors. Among women, Mexican Americans with low SES were the group at greatest risk for elevated CRP (odds ratio OR = 2.1, 95% confidence interval CI = 1.5–2.9). African American women tended to have a heightened risk of elevated CRP regardless of their SES, with the middle SES group having the highest risk (OR = 1.8, 1.1–3.0). White women with low SES (OR = 1.6, 1.1–2.6) were also at risk for elevated CRP. Among men, whites with low SES were the group most likely to have elevated CRP (OR = 1.6, 95% CI = 1.1–2.3). BMI and waist circumference accounted for some of the risk in Mexican American women and all of the risk in African American women. Smoking accounted for 50% of the SES association in white men and women. Our hypothesis that low-SES minorities would be at the highest risk of elevated CRP was found to be partially true in women only, with low-SES Mexican American women at highest risk. Low-SES whites had the highest risk among men. Different mediating factors are responsible for elevated CRP in different race, ethnic, and SES groups.

SES, ethnic, and gender differences in young children's informal addition and subtraction: A clinical interview investigation

The main goal of this study was to examine possible socioeconomic status (SES) differences in 4- and 5-year-old children's informal mathematical knowledge. One hundred and two children, 32 from lower, 39 from middle, and 31 from upper SES families participated in the study. Each participant was given a clinical interview involving several addition and subtraction problems and a related representation task. With and without scaffolding, the children from the upper SES group showed higher rates of success on many problems than did the children from the lower and middle SES groups. At the same time, the results fail to reveal significant differences in the performance levels of children from lower and middle SES families. Furthermore, all of the SES groups used very similar strategies. Although the children from the upper SES group showed higher levels of performance, their underlying knowledge (strategies) differed little from that of children from the lower and middle SES groups. These results are consistent with the hypotheses that both common biological inheritance and a common environment rich in opportunities for mathematical learning insure the development of basic mathematical competence in virtually all children. The study also found almost no gender or ethnic differences in performance and underlying knowledge. The results suggest that evaluators and educators should employ flexible methods, like the clinical interview, to assess mathematical knowledge and that preschoolers can benefit from a rich mathematics education.

Properties of adult and adolescent mothers' speech, children's verbal performance and cognitive development in different socioeconomic groups: a longitudinal study

The research analysed longitudinally the properties of maternal utterances and their relation with child's language and cognitive development. The sample consisted of 125 mother-child dyads divided in three groups: 32 adolescent mothers, 54 adult mothers of low socioeconomic status (LSES), and 39 adult mothers of middle socioeconomic status (MSES). The form and function of each mother's utterances to her child at 18, 30 and 36 months of age were evaluated during a free-play session in the laboratory. Results showed differences between the three groups in the properties of maternal utterances. Adolescent and adult LSES mothers used more utterances that controlled or directed what the child was doing, and fewer utterances that informed or questioned the child. During their second and third year of life, children from the MSES group obtained higher scores than children of adolescent and adult LSES mothers on measures of language and cognitive development. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the forms and functions of maternal utterances were important predictors of child development. Most importantly, the forms and functions of maternal utterances from 18 to 36 months explained 45% of the variance in the children's score on the Stanford-Binet.

PREVALENCE OF ANTI-HEPATITIS A (HAV) ANTIBODIES BY AGE GROUP IN THREE REGIONS IN CHILE. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON PREVALENCE OF OTHER VIRAL HEPATITIS AGENTS

Viral hepatitis is the most frequent reportable infectious disease in Chile. Its seroprevalence was studied in 3 regions in Chile (I (IR), XII (XIIR) and Metropolitan Region (MR). A demographic and risk factor survey and a blood sample were obtained from subjects at randomly selected homes in each area (1 subject per home). Serum samples were tested for anti-HVA IgG by ELISA. Selected cohorts were also tested for hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) markers by ELISA. 2600 subjects were enrolled (776 (IR), 1112 (MR), 772 (XIIR). Overall prevalence rates for anti-VHA IgG were 64% (IR), 31% (MR) and 26% (XIIR). In all regions prevalence rates increased progressively with age. Two epidemiological patterns were noted, one in MR and XIIR with slow increase in prevalence with age, reaching 44% by age 15, and other in IR with early acquisition of antibodies and rapid increase in prevalence reaching 94% by age 15. Prevalence rates were higher in the low socio-economic status (SES) in MR. Age adjusted rates for low and middle SES groups were similar (50 and 43%) and both significantly higher than high SES group (19%). Multivariate analysis indicates that age, SES, consumption of shellfish and lack of running water at home are statistically significant risk factors for HAV in Chile. 1813 samples were analyzed for HBV markers, 13 (0.7%) were positive for anti-HBcAg and 2(0.1%) positive for HBsAg. 150 samples from young adults were negative for anti-HCV (C100-3). There is a significant reduction in anti-HAV prevalence in MR when compared to previous studies from the 80's. Two epidemiological patterns of HAV were observed, Age, SES, consumption of shellfish, and lack of running water appear as risk factors for HAV. Prevalence of HBV markers is low and does not show regional variations. Grant FONDECYT N° 90-0659. Grant Child Health Foundation ID/91UC.

Verbal Communication, Nonverbal Communication, and Private Speech in Lower and Middle Socioeconomic Status Preschool Children

Three types of communication--verbal, nonverbal, and private speech--were investigated in 4- and 5-year-old children. Multiple analyses of variance (MANOVAs) without IQ controlled and multiple analyses of covariance (MANCOVAs) with IQ as a covariate were computed and followed by ANOVAs and ANCOVAs to determine the effects of sex, age, and socioeconomic status (SES) on each of these types of communication. The ANOVAs and the ANCOVAs yielded the same conclusions. Results indicated that age and SES, but not sex, influence the use of the three communication types. From age 4 to age 5, private speech decreased for middle SES children and remained the same for lower SES children. Although lower SES children had more nonverbal communication at both age levels than middle SES children, nonverbal communication decreased for middle SES children and increased for lower SES children between the ages of 4 and 5 years. Both lower and middle SES groups increased in verbal communication between the two ages. The middle SES 4-year-olds used more verbal communication than their lower SES counterparts, and the difference was maintained at age 5. Although IQ is related to verbal communication, statistically controlling for the effects of IQ did not change the conclusions.

Delineating aquifers by use of gravimetry supported by reflection seismics in the Bredebro area, Denmark

Performance on cognitive tasks was compared for children of three age levels—6–10, 7–10, and 8–10—and three socioeconomic status (SES) levels—lower, middle, and upper—using two different kinds of stimulus material in assessment. The two stimulus materials were school-like materials, which are traditionally usedd in the assessment of cognitive abilities, and food, which is a common material familiar to children of all ages and SES levels. Tests of three cognitive competencies—classification, conservation of substance, and conservation of number—were evaluated. For each of the tests, significant interactions indicated that the kind of stimulus material used in assessing cognitive competence affected children's performance. On classification and conservation of substance, children at the lowest age level and at the lowest SES level performed better when food was used in the assessment than when school-like material was used. However, kind of material used in the test did not substantially affect the performance of the upper SES children nor that of the oldest children, except for the oldest lower SES group. On conservation of number, the upper SES group of all age levels and the oldest middle SES group performed equally well with both materials. All other groups tended to perform better with school-like materials.

Interactions of stimulus materials, age, and SES in the assessment of cognitive abilities

Performance on cognitive tasks was compared for children of three age levels—6–10, 7–10, and 8–10—and three socioeconomic status (SES) levels—lower, middle, and upper—using two different kinds of stimulus material in assessment. The two stimulus materials were school-like materials, which are traditionally usedd in the assessment of cognitive abilities, and food, which is a common material familiar to children of all ages and SES levels. Tests of three cognitive competencies—classification, conservation of substance, and conservation of number—were evaluated. For each of the tests, significant interactions indicated that the kind of stimulus material used in assessing cognitive competence affected children's performance. On classification and conservation of substance, children at the lowest age level and at the lowest SES level performed better when food was used in the assessment than when school-like material was used. However, kind of material used in the test did not substantially affect the performance of the upper SES children nor that of the oldest children, except for the oldest lower SES group. On conservation of number, the upper SES group of all age levels and the oldest middle SES group performed equally well with both materials. All other groups tended to perform better with school-like materials.

How Ethnicity and Religion Affect Attitudes towards Mixed Marriages

A survey schedule of Townsville and Thuringowa Shire residents allowed attitudes on inter-ethnic and inter-religious marriages to be assessed. A sample of 411 respondents selected on an equal probability bias were interviwed. Attitudes towards mixed marriages were assessed by investigating 2 independent variables namely, ethnicity and religious denomination. Both age and ethnicity were found to have independent effects on attitudes towards mixed marriages. The religious denomination- mixed marriage relationship was significant for the middle socioeconomic status group (p<.05), for those involved in a relationship (p<.05) and for the religious (p<.05).

HEIGHT AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

We analyzed data from the National Health Examination Survey (Cycle III), a representative sample of non-institutionalized US youth (3545 males (M), 3223 females (F), 12-17 yr of age), to examine the relationship between the height (normalized for age) (H) and measures of: intellectual development (WISC), academic achievement (WRAT), evaluations by teachers, and the educational aspirations and expectations of subjects and their parents. Parental education and income were used as measures of socio-economic status (SES); sexual maturation (by Tanner score) was categorized by age into early, mid, and late-maturers. WISC and WRAT scores were both significantly correlated with H (r=0.22 & 0.20 white M; r=0.22 & 0.22 white F; p<0.0001). Parental expectations that their child would finish college were higher for adolescents above the 50th percentile of height for age. (43% vs 33%, M; 30% vs 24%, F). Adolescent expectations that they would finish college were likewise higher in the taller group (48% vs 39%, M; 38% vs 29%, F). Teachers ranked the taller adolescents in the upper third of their class more frequently then the shorter adolescents (25% vs 18%, M; 33% vs 25%, F). These findings persist in both blacks and whites, in the lower and middle SES groups and when subjects with early and late maturation are excluded. These data demonstrate a consistent and statistically significant, although modest, correlation between H and these measures of intellectual and academic performance, as well as educational expectations of both the adolescent and parent.

Social Dominance and Cerebral Hemisphericity

A neurosociological argument is presented which hypothesizes that persons in positions of social subdominance--black racial status, low and middle socioeconomic status (SES), and female sexual status will, in comparison to persons in positions of dominance--white, high SES, and male, be right-hemispheric, i.e., will perform best on a test lateralized to the right cerebral hemisphere and its appositional mode of thought as opposed to a test lateralized to the left hemisphere and its propositional mode of thought. Data from 1058 adults from two probability samples (excluding left-handers, housewives and unemployed persons) are analyzed. Appositional performance is measured by the Street Gestalt-Completion Test (A), propositional performance by the WAIS Similarities Subtest (P), and right-hemisphericity by (A-P)/(A+P). Multigroup discriminant function analysis and three-way analyses of variance produced the following results: (1) blacks are more right-hemispheric than are whites, with lower similarities performance and higher Street performance; (2) SES varies directly with Similarities performance, but not with Street performance; (3) there is a two way interaction between race and SES such that middle SES groups are most right-hemispheric for whites, and low SES groups, most right-hemispheric for blacks; (4) females are more right hemispheric than are males among blacks and lower SES whites, reflecting in part the superior performance of black females on the Street test.

Socioeconomic Status as Related to Aptitude, Attrition, and Achievement of College Students

Black college students from three socioeconomic levels were compared on the following variables: SAT scores (verbal and math); attrition two years after matriculation; grade point average (GPA) at the end of the first college semester and after two years; correlation (r) between SA T-V and first semester GPA within each socioeconomic group. The expectation of a positive relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and SA T scores was only partially confirmed. SAT-V predicted GPA for lower SES -students as well as for higher SES students. Attrition and SES were inversely related. Surprisingly, it was the middle SES group which consistently performed most poorly on GPA.

Effects of Motivational and Presentation Conditions on Digit Recall of Children of Differing Socioeconomic, Racial, and Intelligence Groups

Arthur Jensen (1968a, b) has summarized considerable evidence in support of a theoretical position which distinguishes between intelligence and basic learning abilities. Jensen describes basic learning ability as a different, more fundamental, psychological process than intelligence. Tests of basic learning ability are considered to depend relatively little on transfer from previous learning or upon verbal mediation processes; they are, therefore, presumed to be less sensitive to social or experiental conditions than are standard intelligence tests. Specifically, Jensen suggests that lower socioeconomic status (SES) children who test within an IQ range of 60-80 are better than middle SES children of comparable intelligence on certain tests of learning ability, such as memory for digits. He suggests further that low SES children of normal intelligence do not differ from middle SES children of normal intelligence in performance of such tasks. Despite impressive evidence describing performance of middle and low SES groups on serial and paired associate learning, several major considerations deserve attention before definitive generalizations