Middle Paleolithic Assemblages Research Articles

Analysis of bifacial elements from Grotte de la Verpillière I and II (Germolles, France)

Abstract Bifacial objects are iconic lithic artifacts of Middle Paleolithic assemblages. This paper presents a comparative analysis of the production sequences of bifacial objects from Grottes de la Verpilliere I and II (VP I and II) in Germolles, Saone-et-Loire, France. This study shows that despite morphological diversity, a general production sequence exists for all of the bifacial artifacts: phases of backing, bottom-side and top-side configuration and cutting-edge regularization. The study also compares the bifacial assemblages from modern excavations in intact sediments (VP II), mixed sedimentological units (VP I and II), the backdirt of old excavations (VP I) and museum collections from prior excavations and surface collections (VP I), which show notable diversity. An attempt is made to resituate assemblages without clear spatial provenience into the framework established by studies of the material from in situ sediments containing bifacial elements from Verpilliere II, with reference to the notes of former excavators of Verpilliere I. Asymmetrically bifacially backed knives from Verpilliere I derive from the entrance of the rock shelter. Moreover, despite distinctive differences of both sites and their bifacial assemblages, they share similarities with regard to both production sequences and components.

Nubian technology in northern Arabia: Impact on interregional variability of Middle Paleolithic industries

Since 2013, the authors have conducted archaeological surveys across the Al-Jawf province in northern Saudi Arabia. In the past two seasons, 48 sites were mapped and characterized by the presence of Levallois technology and, therefore, attributed to the Middle Paleolithic of Arabia. Preferential Levallois reduction using different methods of dorsal core preparation have been found at these sites. The technological variability includes Nubian Levallois methods, preferential Levallois with centripetal preparation, as well as recurrent centripetal reduction methods. In Arabia, sites with Nubian Levallois reduction are known from southern Oman, eastern Yemen, and central Saudi Arabia, while in Africa this reduction method has been identified across much of the northeastern continent. Preferential Levallois with centripetal preparation and recurrent centripetal Levallois methods have been found across Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. Outside of Arabia, these methods have been found in many regions across the Old World. In this paper, we present the results from technological analyses on the Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the newly discovered Al-Jawf sites. The technological data are used to place these sites into a wider regional framework, assessing whether connections with known lithic industries from across the Near East and northeastern Africa can be surmised.

Quartz use in the absence of flint: Middle and Upper Palaeolithic raw material economy in the Côa Valley (North-eastern Portugal)

Differing from most of European Upper Palaeolithic record, the Côa Valley lithic assemblages reveal an intensive use of a large variety of quartz and quartzite available locally. New surveys of the lower Côa Valley quartz veins were carried out in order to establish potential areas of raw material exploitation by hunter-gatherers through the identification of the raw material sources present in the archaeological record. Upper Palaeolithic lithic assemblages are produced on local quartz varieties, regional fine-grained quartz veins and flint and silcrete from long distance sources. The proportion of raw material and their choice for different tool types reveal some variation through the Upper Palaeolithic sequence, but present the same diversity and large geographical range of supply. Middle Palaeolithic assemblages from the same region are essentially based on local lithic material, showing a more restricted exploitation area and revealing different technology and procurement strategies, possibly evidence of changes in mobility and social networks.

The Middle Paleolithic occupations of Üçağızlı II Cave (Hatay, Turkey): Geoarcheological and archeological perspectives

The site of Üçağızlı II is located in a partially collapsed cave on the Mediterranean coast of the Hatay region, South Central Turkey. A small intact chamber (chamber D) preserves a sequence of Middle Paleolithic deposits nearly 2m thick. Test excavations at the site in 2005 and 2007 produced large assemblages of artifacts, vertebrate and shellfish remains. The entire sequence formed during the Upper Pleistocene, subsequent to MIS 5a. Faunal and lithic assemblages are comparatively homogeneous, consistent with the inference that the deposits formed under relatively constant environmental conditions. Micromorphological analyses reveal an abundance of combustion features and products, although the visibility of the features is locally compromised by local, small-scale bioturbation. There is evidence that the ways fires were created and maintained changed along with the intensity of occupation. Lithic assemblages most closely resemble other Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the northern Levant but there are inconsistencies with the accepted pattern of technological change over time in the Levantine Mousterian more broadly. Faunal and lithic evidence indicate that the intensity and duration of occupational events declined over time at Üçağızlı II. While there are many parallels in raw material economy with the early Upper Paleolithic of the nearby Üçağızlı I site, the Middle Paleolithic hominins may have used the coastal landscape in a different way from later Upper Paleolithic groups.

Stone tool assemblages and models for the dispersal of Homo sapiens out of Africa

The dispersal of Homo sapiens out of Africa has been extensively researched across several disciplines. Here we review the evidence for spatial and temporal variability in lithic (stone tool) technologies relative to the predictions of two major hypotheses: 1) that a single successful dispersal occurred 60–50 thousand years ago (ka), marked by a trail of geometric/microlithic technologies, and 2) that multiple dispersals occurred, beginning much earlier (probably in Marine Isotope Stage [MIS] 5), associated with Middle Palaeolithic technology in its early phase. Our results show that Late Pleistocene geometric/microlithic technologies exhibit significant temporal and regional differences between each other. These differences suggest independent, convergent origins for these technologies, which are likely to have been repeatedly re-invented. In contrast, we identify similarities between East African lithic technologies from MIS 8 onwards and Middle Palaeolithic assemblages as far east as India by MIS 5. That this constellation of technological features – particularly an emphasis on centripetal Levallois reduction reflecting interchangeable preferential and recurrent methods, along with particular retouched forms such as points – transcends ecologies and raw material types suggests that it is unlikely to entirely reflect technological convergence (analogy). Our results indicate an early onset of multiple dispersals out of Africa. The hypothesis of an early onset to successful dispersal is entirely consistent with the possibility of further subsequent (post-MIS 5) dispersals out of Africa. Testing such hypotheses through quantified comparative lithic studies and interdisciplinary research is therefore likely to significantly advance understanding of the earliest H. sapiens dispersals.

The use of biface manufacturing flakes: Functional analysis of three Middle Palaeolithic assemblages from southwestern and northern France

This paper presents a use-wear analysis of biface manufacturing flakes from three French Middle Palaeolithic sites: Jonzac, Fonseigner, and Saint-Amand-les-Eaux. Low and high power approaches combined with a morphometric analysis demonstrate these flakes, whether retouched or not, to have primarily been used to cut soft and soft to medium-hard materials. Whereas numerous pieces exhibit typical scar patterns referable to butchery activities, clear meat polishes are only evident on a handful of flakes from Jonzac together with less definitive examples from Saint-Amand. Several differences between these two sites can be seen in the morphology of prehensile areas on biface manufacturing flakes. Finally, factors, such as flake morphology, assemblage composition, site function, and cultural traditions that may have influenced the way these artefacts were used are also discussed.

Middle to Late Pleistocene human habitation in the western Nefud Desert, Saudi Arabia

The Nefud Desert is crucial for resolving debates concerning hominin demography and behaviour in the Saharo-Arabian belt. Situated at the interface between the Mediterranean Westerlies and African Monsoonal climate systems, the Nefud lies at the centre of the arid zone crossed by Homo sapiens dispersing into Eurasia and the edges of the southernmost known extent of the Neanderthal range. In 2013, the Palaeodeserts Project conducted an intensive survey of the western Nefud, to: (1) evaluate Pleistocene population dynamics in this important region of the Saharo-Arabian belt and (2) contribute towards understanding early modern human range expansions and interactions between different hominin species. Thirteen Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites were discovered in association with palaeolake basins. One of the sites, T'is al Ghadah, may feature the earliest Middle Palaeolithic assemblage of Arabia. Preliminary analyses show that the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites discovered display diverse technological characteristics, indicating that the Nefud was important for population turnovers and exchanges throughout the Pleistocene. Periodic environmental amelioration appears to have attracted hominin incursions into the region, and subsequent ephemeral occupations structured around lakes and, to a lesser extent, raw material sources. However, differences between the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic sites are indicative of greater mobility during the later Pleistocene. A rarity of formal tools, but strong similarities in lithic production techniques, are also suggestive of demographic affinities across the Nefud during the Pleistocene, and perhaps beyond. These preliminary results support the view that the Arabian Peninsula was a critically important region of southwest Asia during the Late Pleistocene, in which demographic responses to climatic amelioration may have structured connectivity across the Saharo-Arabian belt, the Levant and as far as India.

Predetermined flake production at the Lower/Middle Paleolithic boundary: Yabrudian scraper-blank technology.

While predetermined débitage technologies are recognized beginning with the middle Acheulian, the Middle Paleolithic is usually associated with a sharp increase in their use. A study of scraper-blank technology from three Yabrudian assemblages retrieved from the early part of the Acheulo-Yabrudian complex of Tabun Cave (ca. 415–320 kyr) demonstrates a calculated and preplanned production, even if it does not show the same complexity and elaboration as in the Levallois technology. These scraper dominated assemblages show an organization of production based on an intensive use of predetermination blank technology already in place at the end of the Lower Paleolithic of the Levant. These results provide a novel perspective on the differences and similarities between the Lower and Middle Paleolithic industries. We suggest that there was a change in the paradigm in the way hominins exploited stone tools: in many Middle Paleolithic assemblages the potential of the stone tools for hafting was a central feature, in the Lower Paleolithic ergonometric considerations of manual prehension were central to the design of blanks and tools.

Late Middle Pleistocene genesis of Neanderthal technology in Western Europe: The case of Payre site (south-east France)

Technological changes during the second part of the Middle Pleistocene in Europe are crucial sources of information as they are considered to be evidence of the transition between two distinct periods; the Lower Palaeolithic and the Middle Palaeolithic. The application of experimental technical (mode of percussion) and technological (core technology) analyses contributes to a more accurate appraisal of these technological changes and renews traditional approaches to the study of Early Middle Palaeolithic lithic assemblages. In this paper, the analysis of the level Ga assemblage from Payre, dated to the end of isotopic stage 8 – beginning of stage 7, based on the technological analysis of the archaeological assemblage and experimental methodologies, indicates that Pre-Neanderthals adopted a variety of technological solutions during the earliest occupations of this site. At Orgnac 3, the reduction process in level 1 was mainly based on Levallois core technology (even if different methods were applied) and a ramified process (with many core-flakes), whereas the débitage in level Ga at Payre was generally unifacial on flakes and orthogonal, but primarily reveals technical and technological strategies related to both Quina, discoid and Levallois débitage concepts. Early Middle Palaeolithic assemblages, as represented by level Ga at Payre, could attest to the presence of a technical and technological “pool of knowledge” for some hominin groups as early as MIS 8–7, with sequential applications of different methods on the same core. This technological behavior would thus represent a phase of transition observed in some assemblages between the Lower Palaeolithic and the Late Middle Palaeolithic strategies. This behavior differs from standardized technology during the Late Middle Palaeolithic, as documented in Western Europe, before the outbreak of technological variability which occurred at roughly the same time as the arrival of the first modern humans during MIS 3. Hypotheses for explaining this transitional phase are discussed in relation to other examples of assemblages.

Datations SMA et nouveaux regards sur l’archéo-séquence du Rond-du-Barry (Polignac, Haute-Loire)

A series of 36 radiocarbon AMS ages produced from separate bone fragments has prompted a new appraisal of the archaeological sequence of the Rond-du-Barry Cave (Polignac, Haute-Loire). A huge rock-fall of unknown age underlies Unit H, which contains evidence of the oldest human occupation of the site consisting of a Middle Palaeolithic assemblage dated to between 40 and 33 kyr. The first Upper Palaeolithic occupation of the Cave occurred later. In Unit F, three Badegoulian occupation sectors can be identified that are dated to between 20 and 17.5 kyr. The uppermost units, E and D yielded Middle and Upper Magdalenian dates of between 15.4 and 12.4 kyr. Within Unit E, a tephra related layer (E6) is likely to belong to a distal southern lobe of an eruptive event that was centred in the Chaîne des Puys, 100km to the north. Unit D shows evidence of being re-worked at least during Mesolithic/Neolithic times, circa 6.5/4.9 kyr. The sum of this new evidence demonstrates the existence of a previously unrecognised stratigraphic and spatial complexity within the Rond-du-Barry archaeological deposits, which demands that new investigations be made in this cave.

The Middle Paleolithic site of Cuesta de la Bajada (Teruel, Spain): a perspective on the Acheulean and Middle Paleolithic technocomplexes in Europe

Here we present a pluridisciplinary study of Cuesta de la Bajada site (Teruel, Spain). Our findings show that the site contains an early Middle Paleolithic assemblage similar to other European early Middle Paleolithic industries, allowing us to evaluate the coexistence of this industrial tradition with the Acheulean technocomplex in southwest Europe.The process of lithic production at Cuesta de la Bajada represents a technology focused on debitage, the application of technical concepts such as ramified production sequences, and the recycling of flakes via the resharpening of tools and exhausted cores. This site was formed around a pond not far from a river and contains remains of large macrofauna other than equids and cervids. Taphonomic analysis highlights the abundance of cut marks on bones, and supports the hypothesis of selective hunting by hominids. The numerical ages derived from the combination of ESR, OSL and AAR dating methods indicate that the archaeological site was very likely formed around the MIS 8-MIS 9. The appearance of Middle Paleolithic industries in Europe could represents the autochthonous development of a technocomplex distinctly different from the Acheulean, characterised by chaînes opératoires of debitage and a progressive increase of Levallois technology and retouched tools.These results suggest that there is a clear coexistence of assemblages with Acheulean and Middle Paleolithic industries during the last third of the Middle Pleistocene at least in the Iberian Peninsula.

Middle Palaeolithic point technology, with a focus on the site of Tor Faraj (Jordan, MIS 3)

The manufacture of small and standardised lithic points has been emphasised in debates on modern human origins. Points, produced by striking specifically shaped core surfaces (debitage) and/or by retouching flakes, are iconic artefacts of the Middle Palaeolithic. The study of point variation brings together many themes, including debates on function, on the technology of lithic reduction, standardisation and even on putatively ‘symbolic’ aspects. This paper considers in detail the character of point morphology and production at the ∼60–50 ka site of Tor Faraj, Jordan. It does so both to consider point technology at this well preserved and excavated southwest Asian site, which has been suggested to represent one of the most southern limits of Neanderthal dispersal, but also as a case study with which to consider wider themes of point variability in time and space. Much recent discussion has focussed on dichotomising precocious points made by ‘modern’ humans, perhaps leading to their global dispersal, in contrast to purportedly inferior analogues made by ‘archaic’ hominins. This dichotomy is frequently seen in terms of a distinction between projectile and thrusting technology, on the assumption that the normative function of points was as weapon tips, and that there is a clear link between size and function. Many Late Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in the Levant, which are exclusively associated with Neanderthal fossils, reflect an emphasis on the production of points by debitage methods. Here, the standardised nature of point production at Tor Faraj is described. Further insights into point technology require the development of technological and quantitative, rather than typological, analyses and the transcendence of simplistic interpretative dichotomies.

Late Middle Palaeolithic bifacial technologies across northwest Europe: Typo-technological variability and trends

Despite a rich archaeological record, northwest Europe (Belgium, the Netherlands, western, northern and eastern France) is often not included in detailed debates on Middle Palaeolithic lithic variability. This is, in part, related to a lack of contextual information for some assemblages, but also to a scarcity of widely accessible publications, especially in relation to early 20th century excavations. However, it is clear that across Europe, including in this northwest region, the late Middle Palaeolithic (here MIS 5d–3, ∼115–35 ka) is characterised by an increase in the use of bifacial technologies, and this paper provides a wider, integrative perspective on late Middle Palaeolithic bifacial tool variability in northwest Europe.Primary data from seven key assemblages (Oosthoven, Grotte du Docteur, Sint-Geertruid, Saint-Just en Chaussée, Saint-Julien de la Liègue, Bois-du-Rocher and Champlost) is integrated with published data from an additional 45 assemblages, allowing for an extensive assessment of the characteristics of these biface-rich assemblages. Results suggest a large amount of typo-technological variability, as expressed through the varying nature of several technological attributes (raw material, blank type, cortex remnant, cross section and edge angles), as well as through the presence of different bifacial tool concepts and bifacial tool types.The limited chronostratigraphic information available suggests the presence of bifacial tools in northwest Europe throughout the warm phases of both MIS 5 and MIS 3. Furthermore, a detailed regional overview identifies common ground within many of these northwest European late Middle Palaeolithic assemblages. Rather than a series of region-specific entities, this research proposes that a larger-scale distinction can be made between assemblages dominated by classic handaxes, and assemblages characterised by the generalised application of bifacial retouch. The latter contain a wider variety of bifacial tools and it is, therefore, suggested to group these assemblages under the overarching label of ‘Mousterian with Bifacial Tools’ (MBT). Detailed studies of new, well-contextualised assemblages are needed to fully unravel the causal factors and behavioural intricacies underlying this bifacial tool variability and the MBT entity.

Fragmented reduction processes: Middle Palaeolithic technical behaviour in the Abri du Maras shelter, southeastern France

New excavations at the Abri du Maras, located in the southeast of France, have yielded Middle Palaeolithic assemblages with evidence of rock shelter occupations in a cold climatic context contemporaneous with MIS 4. Few MIS 4 sites are known in this part of France and especially in this state of preservation. The paper is focused on one sedimentological layer divided into two archaeological levels (sub-levels 4.1 and 4.2). Our goal was to examine the Middle Palaeolithic lithic assemblage of these two levels by interdisciplinary approaches (technology, origin of flint and functional analysis of stone tools) in order to identify the technical strategies and the land-use patterns in a specific environmental context. The two occupations do not show differences in behaviours. The technical strategies applied to flint and other stones indicate a fragmentation of the reduction processes in a local and semi-local perimeter around the site. The main core technology is Levallois, generally on flint cortical cores on flakes. Flint flakes, blades and points are the main components of the series and the technological aims of the debitage. Due to the small size of the flakes used for flaking, large flint flakes, blades (Levallois or cortical) and Levallois points were produced elsewhere, to the north and south of the site (up to 20–30 km) according to the geological study, and then brought to the shelter. Flakes in other lithic materials (quartz, quartzite) were also knapped elsewhere before being transported to the shelter. Some of the large flint flakes, but also nodules and fragments of slabs, were then used for onsite flaking. Flake-tools are very rare. Evidence of impact fractures and TCSA/TCSPs values of the corpus of unretouched Levallois points suggest that some points, brought or prepared on the site, could have been used as projectile tips. The lithics attest to management of local and semi-local stones in a perimeter of 30 km around the site (possibly more due to some unidentified flint) and an anticipation of domestic needs in relation to reindeer hunting, the predominant activity. Imported artefacts and artefacts made on the site were used for the same diversity of activities and materials (butchery, plant and woodworking). The technological strategies and the type of management differ slightly from those from cave assemblages in the same area located in valleys and on low plateaux near the Rhône corridor, possibly due to the type of the site, a vast shelter. Data from the Abri du Maras are compared to data from the other Middle Palaeolithic sites of the region and the role of the topographic aspect of the site on the type of occupations is discussed.

Fire production in the deep past? The expedient strike-a-light model

Clear examples of tools used to artificially ignite fire are virtually absent in the archaeological record until the late Upper Palaeolithic. One explanation is that, until this point, hominins were (by and large) simply fire users dependent on the environment to provide conflagrations for exploitation, as opposed to fire producers. An alternate scenario is that the tools they used to perform this task are difficult to recognise in artefact assemblages. To account for this, we propose the 'expedient strike-a-light model', a concept that draws inspiration from the apparent ad hoc nature of many hunter-gatherer lithic technologies, especially those of the Middle Palaeolithic. The model contends early flint strike-a-lights were not formalised or specialised tools used to kindle multiple fires, as seen in later time periods. Instead, we postulate that flakes, retouched implements or other fragments made from siliceous lithic raw materials were utilised on a very short-term basis in conjunction with the minerals marcasite or pyrite (sulphuric iron) to generate fire. Building on previous research and our own experimental data, we establish criteria to identify expedient fire-lighting tools, and discuss the testing of our research model on five Middle Palaeolithic assemblages. Although results were negative from this limited data set, this research offers an alternative view of early fire production and a protocol for recognising expedient strike-a-light technology.

New geoarcheological studies at the Middle Paleolithic sites of Khotylevo I and Betovo (Bryansk oblast, Russia): Some preliminary results

The paper presents and discusses the evidence obtained as a result of recent fieldwork at the Middle Paleolithic sites of Khotylevo 1 and Betovo in the Upper Desna river basin, Bryansk oblast of Russia. The stone industries of both sites are based on local tabular good quality flint and contain more (Khotylevo 1) or less (Betovo) representative bifacial components, as well as varying quantities of Levallois products. Previously, all the Middle Paleolithic assemblages of Khotylevo 1 were thought to occur in a redeposited alluvial context dated by different authors to either early Late or even late Middle Pleistocene. The materials of Betovo were thought (mainly on typological grounds) to postdate those of Khotylevo 1. The new stratigraphic observations, supplemented with the results of sedimentological analyses, show that Khotylevo 1 is a multilayered site with some cultural horizons displaying few or no signs of post-depositional dislocation. Coupled with the results of paleomagnetic studies and a radiocarbon date, this data seems to suggest that the formation of the deposits enclosing the known Middle Paleolithic assemblages at both sites might have taken place during the first half of the Middle Valdai megainterstadial (MIS 3).

Middle Palaeolithic and Neolithic Occupations around Mundafan Palaeolake, Saudi Arabia: Implications for Climate Change and Human Dispersals

The Arabian Peninsula is a key region for understanding climate change and human occupation history in a marginal environment. The Mundafan palaeolake is situated in southern Saudi Arabia, in the Rub’ al-Khali (the ‘Empty Quarter’), the world’s largest sand desert. Here we report the first discoveries of Middle Palaeolithic and Neolithic archaeological sites in association with the palaeolake. We associate the human occupations with new geochronological data, and suggest the archaeological sites date to the wet periods of Marine Isotope Stage 5 and the Early Holocene. The archaeological sites indicate that humans repeatedly penetrated the ameliorated environments of the Rub’ al-Khali. The sites probably represent short-term occupations, with the Neolithic sites focused on hunting, as indicated by points and weaponry. Middle Palaeolithic assemblages at Mundafan support a lacustrine adaptive focus in Arabia. Provenancing of obsidian artifacts indicates that Neolithic groups at Mundafan had a wide wandering range, with transport of artifacts from distant sources.

Middle Palaeolithic occupation in the Thar Desert during the Upper Pleistocene: the signature of a modern human exit out of Africa?

The Thar Desert marks the transition from the Saharo-Arabian deserts to the Oriental biogeographical zone and is therefore an important location in understanding hominin occupation and dispersal during the Upper Pleistocene. Here, we report the discovery of stratified Middle Palaeolithic assemblages at Katoati in the north-eastern Thar Desert, dating to Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 5 and the MIS 4–3 boundary, during periods of enhanced humidity. Hominins procured cobbles from gravels at the site as evidenced by early stages of stone tool reduction, with a component of more formalised point production. The MIS 5c assemblages at Katoati represent the earliest securely dated Middle Palaeolithic occupation of South Asia. Distinctive artefacts identified in both MIS 5 and MIS 4–3 boundary horizons match technological entities observed in Middle Palaeolithic assemblages in South Asia, Arabia and Middle Stone Age sites in the Sahara. The evidence from Katoati is consistent with arguments for the dispersal of Homo sapiens populations from Africa across southern Asia using Middle Palaeolithic technologies.

The Khormusan: Evidence for an MSA East African industry in Nubia

There is clear evidence of lithic technological variability in Middle Paleolithic (MP) assemblages along the Nile valley and in adjacent desert areas. One of the identified variants is the Khormusan, the type-site of which, Site 1017, is located north of the Nile's Second Cataract. The industry has two distinctive characteristics that set it apart from other MP industries within its vicinity. One is the use of a wide variety of raw materials; the second is an apparent correlation between raw material and technology used, suggesting a cultural aspect to raw material management. Stratigraphically, site 1017 is situated within the Dibeira-Jer formation which represents an aggradation stage of the Nile and contains sediments originating from the Ethiopian Highlands. While it has previously been suggested that the site dates to sometime before 42.5 ka, the Dibeira-Jer formation can plausibly be correlated with Nile alluvial sediments in northern Sudan recently dated to 83 ± 24 ka (MIS 5a). This stage coincides with the 81 ka age of sapropel S3, indicating higher Nile flow and stronger monsoon rainfall at these times.Other sites which reflect similar raw material variability and technological traditions are the BNS and KHS sites in the Omo Kibish Formation (Ethiopia) dated to ∼100 ka and ∼190 ka respectively. Based on a lithic comparative study conducted, it is suggested that site 1017 can be seen as representing behavioral patterns which are indicative of East African Middle Stone Age (MSA) technology, adding support to the hypothesis that the Nile Valley was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of MIS 4. Techo-typological comparison of the assemblages from the Khormusan sites with other Middle Paleolithic sites from Nubia and East Africa is used to assess the possibility of tracing the dispersal of technological traits across the landscape and through time.

Paleolithic Archaeology in China

Despite almost a century of research, the Chinese Paleolithic chronocultural sequence still remains incomplete, although the number of well-dated sites is rapidly increasing. The Chinese Paleolithic is marked by the long persistence of core-and-flake and cobble-tool industries, so interpretation of cultural and social behavior of humans in East Asia based solely on comparison with the African and western Eurasian prehistoric sequences becomes problematic, such as in assessing cognitive evolutionary stages. For the Chinese Paleolithic, wood and bamboo likely served as raw materials for the production of daily objects since the arrival of the earliest migrants from western Asia, although poor preservation is a problem. Contrary to the notion of a “Movius Line” with handaxes not present on the China side, China does have a limited distribution of Acheulian bifaces and unifaces. Similarly, Middle Paleolithic assemblages are present in the Chinese sequence. Although the available raw materials have been assumed to have limited applicable knapping techniques in China, this notion is challenged by the appearance of microblade industries in the north in the Upper Paleolithic. In the south, early pottery making by foragers emerged 20,000 years ago, thus preceding the emergence of farming but heralding the long tradition of cooking in China.