Middle Eastern Scholars Research Articles

Komparasi Penerapan Al-Wasiah Al-Wajibah Mesir Dan Indonesia

Islamic Family Law underwent reform in the 20th century. One of the reform phenomena that developed in the ijtihad of the scholars, namely Al-Wasiah Al-Wajibah, is part of the legal reform efforts in the Islamic world, which has now been implemented, especially in Indonesia. However, the results of this reform effort are still far from perfect, because there are still many problems in the distribution of inheritance through mandatory wills. As a result, Indonesian scholars have agreed to implement mandatory wills in the Compilation of Islamic Law (KHI), following and developing Egyptian law No. 71 of 1946. This research uses a comparative descriptive method and collects data through a literature review, referring to fiqh sources from both classical and contemporary sources, as well as articles in the Compilation of Islamic Law (KHI) on the issue of compulsory probate. Compulsory probate is a new rule introduced by Middle Eastern scholars, especially in Indonesia and Egypt, followed by other Middle Eastern Islamic countries.

Beyond Borders: Unpacking us Military Involvement in Afghanistan as a Case Study in the Islamic World

Purpose: This study seeks to assess the adherence to international law in the 2001 U.S.-led military intervention in Afghanistan, prompted by the September 11 attacks. Additionally, it aims to investigate the impact of the Greater Middle East Initiative on U.S. policy towards the Islamic World, specifically Afghanistan, providing insights into legal intricacies and broader consequences. Theoretical Framework: This article engages in discussions among Western scholars on the Afghanistan war and U.S. military involvement but distinguishes itself by incorporating insights from Middle Eastern scholars. It aims to enrich the discourse by integrating perspectives from within the Middle Eastern scholarly community, offering a comprehensive view of these complex subjects. Methodology: Employing historical, descriptive, and in-depth analytical research methods, this study examines events around September 11, 2001, providing essential context for the subsequent U.S. military intervention. Descriptive methods offer a detailed account of the post-9/11 shift in U.S. policy, while in-depth analytical methods scrutinize legal dilemmas arising from the intervention, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of historical context, U.S. policy decisions, and legal complexities. Results: The results and discussion section explores the historical evolution of U.S. military engagement in 21st-century Afghanistan, analyzing its strategic shifts and the Taliban's adaptation to guerrilla warfare. It critically evaluates the international legal aspects of the Afghan War, assessing the legitimacy of the U.S.-led military intervention based on UN conventions, historical precedents, and key principles such as the right to legitimate defense, urgency, and proportionality. Conclusions: The aftermath of September 11, 2001, marked a transformative moment in U.S. policy towards Afghanistan and the broader Middle East, leading to the consequential Afghan War. Despite its geopolitical significance, the absence of explicit UN Security Council authorization prompts a critical examination of the war's legitimacy, revealing lapses in meeting criteria for the right to individual or collective legitimate defense and urging a reevaluation of established narratives in international relations and global politics.

Pengembaraan Ilmiah Dan Peran Syeikh Ahmad Khatib Al-Syambasi Dalam Penyebaran Islam Di Nusantara Melalui Thariqat Qadiriyyah Wa Naqsabdniyyah

This article attempts to describe the figure of the Nusantara scholar who belongs to the network of Middle Eastern scholars known as Ashabul Jawawyn, namely Sheikh Ahmad Khatib al-Sambasi, who has a very large role in spreading Islamic teachings. He is known as an expert in the field of Sufism and is called as a sufi expert, he is also known as the founder of the tarekat Qadiriyyah wa Naqsabandiyyah. In collecting data, the author refers to references in the form of books, journals, articles, and others that are relevant to the purpose of writing this article, and after the data is collected, the author sorts and selects the data used as a reference source and then describes the data collected. Obtained according to the purpose of the article in this paper, it was found that Sheikh Muhammad Ibn 'Abd Ghaffar al-Sambasi was an Indonesian scholar from West Kalimantan who wandered in search of Knowledge to the Haramyn Country at the age of 19, and lived in Mecca until he died in in 1875. Even so, Sheikh Ahmad Khatib al-Syambasi was known as someone who had a big role in the Islamic world, especially some areas of the Archipelago and Malaya, among the roles of Sheikh Ahmad Khatib al-Sambasi was to spread Islamic teachings through the Qadiryyah wa Naqsabandiyyah congregation, concerning to the book that is used as a reference in this tarekat is the book of Fath al-'Arifin, a book written by his students through the direct teaching of his teacher, Sheikh Ahmad Khatib al-Syambasi.

Geodeterminism: Truth or Illusion?

The paper is about geographical determinism (geodeterminism), allegedly a foundation of geopolitics. According to this doctrine, the development of society depends on the geographical environment. This paper is divided into three parts. The first part is devoted to an historical overview of geodeterminism and the difference between geodeterminism and geopolitics. The views of ancient Greek philosophers, Middle Eastern scholars, and mediaeval European thinkers are discussed. In the second part, geodeterminism is presented as a genuine phenomenon, and various arguments and examples are given to prove it. In contrast, the third part is devoted to reasoning, based on which geodeterminism can be perceived as an illusion. The last part is the conclusion, which summarises the topics discussed above and formulates some concluding remarks. The paper is framed within a methodological framework. It is based on qualitative research methods, which enabled an in-depth analysis of the information surrounding the research question. In particular, content analysis was used. The research relies on both primary and secondary sources. The paper is largely based on various books, articles, and studies that have made it possible to find an answer to the research question, which served to determine whether geodeterminism is true or is it just an illusion?

Lingkaran Keilmuan Ulama Pesantren Abad 17-18 (Analisis Buku Jaringan Ulama Timur Tengah Dan Kepulauan Nusantara Abad 17-18 Karya Prof. Azyumardi Azra )

Pesantren is a place where you can continue to seek knowledge. The knowledge in the pesantren is obtained from the ulama or kyai who take care of the pesantren. In terms of science, Pesantren has the most distinctive characteristics that distinguish it from other institutions, namely maintaining the tradition of continuity of scientific sanad. Sanad science is important, because the knowledge gained from this continuity has guaranteed authenticity. In this study, it will be discussed about the form of a network of Indonesian and middle eastern scholars by analyzing a book by prof. Azyumardi Azra with the title network of scholars in the Middle East and archipelago. This research is descriptive, because there is no calculation element and is more concerned with the content. With the following findings, the science of islamic boarding school scholars in the archipelago is centered on a network of scholars in the Middle East. The Nusantara scholars studied in Mecca and Medina or commonly called Haramain. The main purpose of scholars coming to Haramain is to perform the hajj and study, but there are some scholars who study until they settle down and build a place there. In haramain they don't just deal with one cleric. After completing their studies, the scholars returned to their respective homelands with what had been obtained in Haramain. The network of scholars grew as scholars retained their works, and these works were not just for their own enjoyment. However, it spreads senusantara.
 Keywords: Ulama Network, Scientific Sanad

Doria Shafik: A Staunch Egyptian Feminist Ahead of Her Time—Damnatio Memoriae

Doria Shafik:A Staunch Egyptian Feminist Ahead of Her Time—Damnatio Memoriae Samia I. Spencer (bio) I was getting more and more conscious that Freedom is one entity—Freedom of Women being inseparable from Freedom of the Nation. I was convinced that there would be no free women in an occupied country and no occupied country with free women. Doria Shafik1 I decided to fight to the last drop of blood to break the chains shackling the women of my country in the invisible prison in which they continued to live, a prison, which being invisible, was all the more oppressive. Doria Shafik2 Today, if you ask educated and well-informed Egyptians who is Doria Shafik (1908-1975), no one is likely to know. If you ask the same question of Middle Eastern scholars or international feminists, the great majority will also have no idea. Yet in the middle of the twentieth century, Shafik was a household name in Egypt and beyond, not only as a dashing and controversial figure but, more importantly, as a renowned journalist, published poet and novelist, militant feminist, and political activist. Unlike [End Page 39] her distinguished mentor Huda Shaarawi (1879-1947)—the eminent grande dame of Egyptian and Arab feminism, and founder (1923) of the Egyptian Feminist Union (EFU)—whose name has made it into academic circles and textbooks, Shafik has gone from the pinnacle of celebrity to the oubliette of history.3 This article will focus on the consistency of Shafik's principles and action throughout her life, and her unparalleled determination and courage as she sought to achieve equality, freedom, justice, and political rights for Egyptian women. The Early Years (1908-1928) Doria was born at the dawn of the twentieth century, December 14, 1908, when harem life was nearing its end and slavery recently banned (1889) and totally abolished (1904), yet her grandmother still owned two slaves. The third of a brood of six, she grew up in a middle-class Muslim family, her childhood spent between two provincial towns in the Nile Delta: Mansoura, where her father, a civil engineer, worked for the railroad; and Tanta, with her grandmother, to attend Notre Dame des Apôtres, the same French school where her mother was educated. In this conservative environment, the precautious and perceptive child developed the unique aspects of her identity: aesthetics and feminism. A gentle and affectionate daughter, Doria was close to her mother with whom she shared an appreciation for beauty and the arts. Watching the Nile from her window, she bonded with the river, its eternal flow arousing in her a yearning for the absolute and enhancing her predisposition for poetry. Socially, she was surrounded by women: a score of female servants, including her French-speaking Syrian nanny, and numerous relatives, friends, and family members. The conversations they shared and the stories they told raised many questions in the mind of [End Page 40] the bright young girl: Why were boys always more privileged than girls? Why did women resort to witchcraft to have sons, not daughters? Why was she not allowed to go to mosque, but her brothers could? Why did husbands take second wives? Reflecting on her observation of the prejudice, humiliation, and injustice experienced by women, especially within the institution of marriage, she hoped to evade that fate. Early on, the seeds of feminism were rooted in her mind and continued to grow as various events and encounters magnified it. Shortly after the traumatic experience of losing her mother at age thirteen, the teenager went to live with her broadminded and understanding father, whose job had taken him to the port city of Alexandria, Egypt's commercial and financial capital, its most modern and most cosmopolitan center.4 Discovering a different world and starting a distinct chapter of her life, Doria relished a newfound freedom in a vibrant multicultural urban setting. Moving to another French school, Saint Vincent de Paul, she focused on her studies, passing the Brevet national exam—equivalent to ninth grade in the United States—with highest honor. Beyond that level, no secondary education was available for girls.5 Undeterred, Doria and a friend decided to study on...

Pemikiran Pendidikan Islam Syekh Ahmad al-Qushashi dan Relevansinya di Era Modern

Islamic education of Indonesia cannot be separated from the role of previous middle eastern scholars. Sheikh Ahmad al-Qushāshī is one of the middle eastern scholars who influenced previously the thinking of Indonesian scholars, whose students took many roles in Indonesian history. Some of the problems discussed in this study are the objectives, methods, educational curriculum and patterns of teacher-student interaction according to Sheikh Ahmad al-Qushāshī and their relevance to modern education in Indonesia. This research is a library research with analytical descriptive method, with several literature sources examined such as as-Simth al-Majid, Manżūmah al-Tawhīd, and other sources. The data analysis technique used is content analysis initiated by Shelley and Krippendorff. The results of research on the educational thinking of al-Qushāsh are briefly as follows: the purpose of education according to al-Qushāsh is to unite God, and become a pious servant. The educational curriculum is a curriculum based on monotheism which is divided into common, special and very special. The al-Qushāshī curriculum approach has an integration pattern between exoteric and esoteric sciences. The method of al-Qushāshī education is the exemplary method, bai'at-talqīn, al-Ŝuhbah and al-ta'dīb, taslīm, and Ilbās. The pattern of teacher-student interaction has a familial pattern of interaction (teachers act as parents, educators, and student guides), so that his thoughts are quite relevant to the modern era.

Network of Hadith of Madurese Scholars: Genealogy, Diffusion, and Intellectual Treasures of Hadith

Hadith is a field of science that is less desirable, so the study of hadith and research on hadith in Indonesia, including in Madura, is far behind other fields of Islamic sciences. Whereas hadith is the mother of Islamic science and should be the main object of study. So far, various pesantren in Madura is more identical to Arabic, interpretation, and fiqh, so research on pesantren, including pesantren in Madura, is dominated by research on these three fields of study. This type of research is descriptive research with a hadith approach through library research and field research to describe the network of hadith scholars in Madura. This study shows that in general, the network of hadith scholars in Madura cannot be separated from the network of hadith scholars in Indonesia which originates from the network of Middle Eastern scholars, especially Mecca from the late 19th to 21st centuries, which was formed and spread through teacher-student relationships and friendships. They contributed to the development of hadith studies in Indonesia through the study of hadith books, sharing of records and ijazah sanad hadith, and writing and publishing work in the field of hadith.

The Influence of Middle Eastern Islamic Political Thought on Islamic Political Parties in Indonesia: The Case of PKS

This paper primarily focuses on the influence of Middle Eastern Scholars on the Prosperous Justice Party or the Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (PKS) of Indonesia. By looking into the way the party establishes and develops itself, and its member recruitment style, this paper shows that the influence of Middle Eastern scholars on the party’s ideology is relatively significant. The emergence of what was known in Indonesia as the dakwah or tarbiyah movement, which later came to influence the establishment of PKS, was in fact an extension of the movements promoted by Abu A’la Maududi in Pakistan and Hassan al-Banna in Egypt. For the PKS, books written by Maududi and al-Banna have become main sources for its members’ training activity, known as the liqo activity. The liqo training method, one would argue, is clearly akin to the one used by the Egyptian al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun movement to recruit its members, except that to the Ikhwan group, the liqo is actually termed as usrah. With its systematic method of gathering, each member of the PKS who has attended the liqo for a long period and considered capable enough to translate the knowledge gained, is urged to create another new liqo group and try to recruit new members.

Intellectual Network of Mandailing and Haramayn Muslim Scholars in the Mid-19th and Early 20th Century

This paper is an attempt to study the scholars’ network of Mandailing Ulama with those of Haramayn in the mid-19th and early 20th century. Employing the content analysis method the research finds that the Mandailing scholars had made an intellectual encounter with the scholars in Haramayn, even some of the established networks with Egyptian and Indian scholars. The Mandailing scholars connote those who ethnically originated from Mandailing clan and data reveals that Mandailing scholars come from the residencies of Tapanuli and East Sumatera, both of which are parts of the modern era North Sumatera province. This not to deny that some of the Mandailing scholars were also born in Makkah. From the aspect of the duration of the study, some scholars studied religion intensively and settled in Makkah, while others only learned the Islamic religion by meeting the scholars of Makkah only during the Hajj period. The last group of scholars only studied religion intensely in Nusantara, but while performing hajj they met the scholars and learned religion in very limited time. Mandailing scholars studied Islamic sciences, especially Quranic exegeses, hadīth, and Sufism to a number of such scholars from Arab and Nusantara as Ahmad Khatib al-Minangkabawi, ‘Abd al-Qadir b. Shabir al-Mandili (Nasution) and Hasan Masysyath. Ideologically, they studied Islamic sciences in the context of the Sunnī school of thought, especially Ash‘arīyah and Shāfi‘īyah. This study then fills the gap of the study of other researchers about the Nusantara Ulama Network with Middle Eastern scholars.

Hamka and Islam: Cosmopolitan Reform in the Malay World by Khairudin Aljunied

Reviewed by: Hamka and Islam: Cosmopolitan Reform in the Malay World by Khairudin Aljunied Alexander Wain Hamka and Islam: Cosmopolitan Reform in the Malay World Khairudin Aljunied Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2018. xi, 146 pp. Plates, biblio., index. US$23.95. Amongst twentieth-century Southeast Asia's Muslim intelligentsia, Indonesian scholar Haji Abdul Malik bin Abdul Karim Amrullah (Hamka) (1908–81) looms large. A pioneer within the field of Islamic reformism, his work continues to shape the outlook of many Malay Muslims today, to a degree no other author has achieved. Perhaps surprisingly, therefore, outside the Malay Archipelago his impressive oeuvre, ranging from Qur'anic commentaries to treatises on social justice to novels, has received only scant attention. In the English language, for example, while comparable Middle Eastern or South Asian scholars have inspired [End Page 129] a plethora of studies, Hamka forms the subject of only a handful of articles and one full-length treatment (John R. Rush's Hamka's Great Story, 2016). While this unfortunate situation is no doubt symptomatic of Southeast Asia's general neglect within the broader field of Islamic Studies, it entails that the current volume by Khairudin Aljunied constitutes a more than welcome addition to the literature. With his admiration for Hamka suffusing each page, Aljunied sketches his subject's 'conceptualization and theorization of social problems in Muslim societies as well as the solutions he offered for dealing with these challenges' (p. 4), all the while underlining how Hamka's 'method of reconstructing Muslim minds was unique. It was a fresh variant of reform that manifested tolerance, moderation, positivity, and inclusiveness and embraced an array of influential ideas stemming from Islam and other intellectual traditions' (p. 119). Elsewhere, Aljunied has conceptualised Southeast Asian Islam as inherently flexible and tolerant—or, cosmopolitan. Reasserting that characterisation here, he frames Hamka as Southeast Asia's 'cosmopolitan reformer' par excellence, a bold and forward-thinking intellectual who rejected exclusivist interpretations in favour of placing 'radically different thought systems in tension and in a dialogue with one another' (p. 5). The first of Aljunied's six chapters, 'Of Reason and Revelation', pursues Hamka's notion of 'guided reason' (akal yang berpedoman). Like many of his contemporaries, Hamka lamented Islam's intellectual stagnation, which he attributed to an over-reliance on taqlid (imitation), the practice of excessively ascetic forms of Sufism, and the intellectual insecurities that accompanied a colonial mind-set. But, as Aljunied explains, while Hamka favoured the restoration of reason in Muslim intellectual life, he remained wary of unbridled rationality. For Hamka, 'reason had its limits, particularly in matters of faith and belief. It therefore must be guided by revelation through the sacred sources of Islam—Qur'an and Hadith (Prophetic sayings)—by good character, and by changing contexts, as well as by new understandings of how Islam should be practiced and lived' (p. 19). Such 'guided reason' underpins much of Hamka's worldview; Aljunied's decision to foreground it here is judicious, establishing valuable intellectual context for those encountering Hamka for the first time. In his second chapter, 'In Praise of Moderation', Aljunied discusses another central tenet within Hamka's work: 'moderation in all things' (kesederhanaan di dalam segala perkara). Although Hamka was cognisant of traditional Islamic notions of moderation (including wasat and i'tidal), Aljunied demonstrates how his inherent cosmopolitanism allowed him to combine these with the Platonic formulation of a balanced life rooted in actualised ethical behaviour. Such behaviour, Hamka argued, was essential for the production of a healthy and just society, and could only be attained by utilizing Islamic ethical norms to train the soul, intellect and body. By contrast, the opposite of moderation, 'extremism' (ghulat, berlebih-lebihan, extrim, fanatik), signalled excessive inflexibility, or the holding of one view at the expense of all others. Identifying both religious and secular manifestations of extremism (notably asceticism and nationalism respectively), Hamka framed each as anathema to Islam. They served merely to fracture society and should be eradicated. [End Page 130] In chapter three, 'Muslims and Social Justice', Aljunied outlines Hamka's innovative approach to a core Islamic reform issue: attaining social justice (mencapai keadilan sosial). Like other Muslim reformers, Hamka lived and wrote amidst...

The Homoerotics of Orientalism

The Homoerotics of Orientalism

Genealogi Kajian Hadis Ulama al-Banjari

Since the 16th century, Middle East became a scientific destination for the scholars of Nusantara. The network of Middle Eastern scholars has contributed greatly to the development of various Islamic intellectual traditions in the archipelago, even the case happened in Banjar society. In the process of transmitting scholars, the scholars of al-Banjari (scholars from Banjar, South Kalimantan) are heavily influenced by Islamic ideas derived therein, including kalam, jurisprudence, tasawwuf, and hadith studies. This article will prove to what extend the influence of Middle Eastern scholars on the development of intellectual traditions of al-Banjari scholars in the study of hadith is. The research method in this paper is by reading the primary sources, in the form of Hadith texts by al-Banjari scholars, and then the genealogy of the sanad and their Hadith diplomas connected with the scholars of hadith study in the Middle East. The reading of the sanad and the certificate will prove that their scholarship is connected to authoritative scholars of hadith. Al-Banjari scholars who became the research object is a scholar from the tribe of Banjar which has a script in the field of hadith or hadith study using Arabic or Malay Arabic. From the standardization used, seven scholars became the object of the research, namely Muhammad Arsyad al-Banjari, Muhammad Kasyful Anwar, Muhammad Anang Sya’rani Arif, Abdul Wahid, Muhammad Syukeri Unus, Fahmi Zamzam, and Muhammad Nurdin Marbu.

Contemporary Fiqh Thoughts of Shaykh Abdul Malik bin Abdullah (1650-1736AD) in Kitab al-Kifayah

Kitab al-Kif?yah is a j?w? manuscript that has been written approximately 300 years ago (between 1690-1736AD) by Shaykh Abdul Malik bin Abdullah in Terengganu. This manuscript is widely regarded as the earliest writing on Islamic jurisprudence in Terengganu, which debated issues regarding beliefs and fiqh. It covers various topics on fundamental knowledge of Islam (fard al ayn) that includes 5 Pillars of Islam (ark?n al-Isl?m), Pillars of Iman (ark?n al-Im?n), ablution, ?al?h (prayers), fasting and zakat (tithe payment). This article is written to highlight the contemporary fiqh thoughts that were contained in this manuscript. This article will also shed light on the life of Shaykh Abdul Malik and the background of Kitab al-Kif?yah. To that end, methods such as documentation searches and interviews were being utilized. It was then analyzed by using inductive and deductive methods. Results from the analyses reveal that Shaykh Abdul Malik utilized contextualization approach on his fiqh rulings. His contemporary thoughts were evident in his arguments for the income level and the consequent zakat rate for the destitute and poor, the zakat rate on gold and silver as well as animals which are halal (permissible) and haram (impermissible) to be consumed. In conclusion, Shaykh Abdul Malik bin Abdullah was not a mere translator of Arabic manuscripts on fiqh rulings by Middle Eastern scholars, but he has managed to contextualize his writings to facilitate the understanding of the locals.

The Existence of Pesantren, Kiai and Kitab Kuning learning as the Main Element of Islamic Education in Indonesia

The aim of this article was to discuss the existence of pesantren, kiai and kitab kuningis the main element of Islamic education in Indonesia. In pesantren carried out process to understand, live and practice the teachings of Islam, which emphasizes the importance of Islamic moral morality as a guide of daily life. Pesantren is led by a kiai. Kiai domiciled as a central figure in the lifestyle of pesantren, as well as owner and teacher. In addition, kiai is also a role model and a holder of absolute wisdom in the value of pesantren. Kiai teaches the science of Islam by using Yellow book. The Kitab kuning is an Arabic-speaking religious book, Malay, Javanese or any other language in Indonesia. Originally a kitab kuning written by Middle Eastern scholars such as Minhaj al-Thalibin by Abu Zakaria al-Nawawi (d667 H/1277 AD), the book of Kanz al-Raghibin by Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (864 H/1460 M), the book Minhaj al-Thullab and Fath al-Wahhab by Zakariyya al-Ansari (w 926 H/1520 AD) and others. But there are also only titles using Arabic, but in Malay, like the Book of Jurisprudence or Fiqh Sirat al-Mustaqim by al-Raniri (d.1068 AH/1658 AD), the book of tasawuf akhlaqi Siyar alSalikin by Abd Shamad al-Falimbani (d.1832AD), the book of fiqh of Sabil alMuhtadin by Muhammad Arsyad al-Banjari (1812 AD). The three main components of Islamic education (pesantren, kiai and kitab kuning) to this day still exist and very meritorious in the development of Islamic education in all corners of Indonesia.

For and against the Mediterranean

Since the landmark intervention of Edward Said, the “Orient” has been widely rejected as a repository of European projections of alterity, and the Mediterranean is variously embraced as a promising framework for cross-cultural relations and transnational scholarship and rejected for its intellectual baggage and propensity to generate “Mediterraneanism.” In the francophone context, the Mediterranean has been a significant yet contentious intellectual category since the waning days of empire. Since the 1980s, with the decline of French power in Europe, the idea of a Mediterranean sphere of influence has held renewed attraction. Economic and political initiatives and educational and cultural projects have promoted transnational exchanges under the auspices of Mediterranean unity. Correspondingly, several Middle Eastern and North African scholars and writers have embraced the Mediterranean as an alternative to monolithic discourses of national, linguistic, and religious identity. Dobie’s essay situates the unique position of the Mediterranean in francophone intellectual culture and critical discourse in the context of colonial and postcolonial history.

“The Virtual Genizah”: Emerging North African Jewish and Muslim Identities Online

After the establishment of the State of Israel, the Zionist narrative dominated the histories and historiographies of Middle Eastern and North African Jewries. Accordingly, Jews and Arabs were largely kept as distinct binaries divided by the intellectual walls that separated Middle East studies and Jewish studies programs. Local North African and Middle Eastern scholars also silenced or overlooked the Jewish dimension of Middle Eastern societies in the same manner that Israeli scholars ignored the historical connections between Arabs and Jews that existed both before and after 1948. The exclusive, sacred yet ebbing, nationalist paradigm has been plagued with historiographical fissures in recent decades, allowing a new wave of intellectual engagement by a young generation of Jewish and Muslim scholars who began to put the Jew and the Arab back into local and global histories formed through complex social, cultural, economic, and political networks.

Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East. By Eleanor H. Tejirian and Reeva Spector Simon. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012. 280 pp. $35.00 cloth.

(ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.)Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand of Christian Missions in the Middle East . By Eleanor H. Tejirian and Reeva Spector Simon . New York : Columbia University Press , 2012. 280 pp. $35.00 cloth.Book Reviews and NotesThis survey joins an ever-increasing number of studies on Christian Missions in the Middle East. Western Catholic and Protestant missions have been the object of much scrutiny and curiosity, especially after the rise of the Orientalism and Clash of Civilizations paradigms that have been raised by Middle Eastern scholars in the last quarter of the twentieth century. With several U.S. led invasions of Iraq, the ongoing Palestinian-Israeli conflict, and with the seismic shifts taking place in nationalist identities due the Arab Spring, studies of such intercultural and interreligious engagements will only increase. This work is part of a larger and longer term project by Eleanor Tejirian and Reeva Spector Simon on the study of Western interaction with the Middle East. Having held several international conferences in the area of Middle East Studies, these two scholars published the results of a pre-9/11 and pre-2003 Iraqi Invasion conference titled Altruism and Imperialism: Western Cultural and Religious Missions in the Middle East by Columbia University Press in 2002.While previous studies have undertaken specific tasks of considering particular mission agencies, areas or events, Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion sets out analyze the Middle East as the place of origin for all Christian mission. It attempts examine the Middle East as an entity in and of itself, as the place where Christianity was born, settled, expanded out of, returned and clashed with the indigenous peoples. The authors' intentions are provide an overarching and religious of the region. As Tejirian and Simon indicate, the survey is to provide a benchmark narrative that tells the story of Christian missions the Middle East from the beginning of Christianity the present (x-xi). A major emphasis of this narrative provides particular attention the social and political constructs from which and into which Christian missionaries engaged.The book is divided into nine very manageable chapters laid out in a historical progression. Chapter 1 lays the foundation for the First Thousand Years of Christianity, noting its origin as a Middle Eastern religion. The mediaeval period is taken up in chapters 2 and 3 where the focus is primarily upon Latin Christian mission and culture. Western Protestant missions take up the lion's share of the book, comprising chapters 4-7. Significant attention is given the cultural projects of Western Protestant mission agencies. Chapters 8 and 9 conclude with the role of Western mission after the great World Wars and the rise of nationalism. The attention the impact of the cultural issues of Western missions in the midst of dramatic political changes is not new this field but is an important focus of this work and is done well.Surveys are always difficult projects. To provide a compelling narrative while maintaining faithfulness complex issues is never easy. A work of this design would have better served its readers in several ways. First, while the authors are be commended for their intention provide a broader social, religious, and political context of missions in the Middle East, the 207 pages of content do not do justice the topic. This of course is an economic issue, but certainly a survey of two thousand years deserves more pages. Pages are jam packed with terms, ideas, and movements that necessarily rush along. In some cases definitions are not clearly given.Second, given the broad landscape of history and issues covered in this survey, using a variety of voices by different authors might have helped underline the importance, complexity, and care with which a topic of this magnitude calls. …

Clinical anatomy of the cranial nerves

We are very happy to present this Special Issue on the cranial nerves to the readers of Clinical Anatomy. The history of the exploration of the cranial nerves and elucidation of their anatomy is ancient. Galen's classification of the cranial nerves (Table 1), notably excluding the olfactory nerves, was composed of seven pairs where it is interesting to note that the sixth pair included the glossopharyngeal, vagus and accessory nerves all travelling through the jugular foramen (Clarke and Jacyna, 1987). The cranial nerves were essentially identified, numbered and characterized based on the opening through which they exited the skull base. Our knowledge of the cranial nerves became more clearly discussed and disseminated by such medieval Middle Eastern and European scholars as Rhazes, Avicenna, Jorjani, Mundinus, Benedetti, Achillini, Massa and Berengario de Carpi (Shoja et al., 2007; Shaw, 1992). The Galenic seven-pair classification of the cranial nerves remained unchanged for more than a millennium until the celebrated German physician and anatomist, Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring, in 1778, implemented a novel classification scheme that is still used today (Squire et al., 2013). Niccolo Massa, an Italian physician and anatomist, was probably the first anatomist in Europe who challenged Galen's classification scheme by enumerating the olfactory nerves as the first pair of cranial nerves. Thomas Willis is notable for his work enumerating and illustrating nine cranial nerve pairs, including the olfactory nerves as the first pair and counting the trochlear, trigeminal and abducens nerves individually (Casey, 2007; Shaw, 1992). In this special issue of Clinical Anatomy, we have attempted to include a wide range of relevant articles with emphasis on their originality and clinical applications of the cranial nerves. The review article by Dr. Vilensky on cranial nerve 0 or the “neglected cranial nerve” is very informative. The special issue contains a landmark study by Dr. Tubbs and his colleagues, which represents “the largest study to date documenting the presence of a cranial root of the accessory nerve.” An article by Dr. Hendrix and colleagues (2014) on the arterial supply of the lower cranial nerves is one that needs specific mention. Skull base surgeons are often perplexed by the fact that following resection of a vestibular schwannoma, some patients develop facial nerve paralysis without their facial nerve being traumatized during the operation. The vast and complex anatomy of the cranial nerve blood supply may provide an explanation for this observation. Whether a proportion of patients with facial paralysis following tumor resection suffer from acute ischemic neuropathy secondary to arterial disruption needs further research. The first step in such research is to elucidate the anatomy of the arterial supply. The two articles on the anastomoses between lower cranial and upper cervical nerves (see Shoja et al., 2014a, 2014b) are products of an over three year review, which attempted to further elucidate the anatomy of the neural network formed by the lower cranial and upper cervical nerves and their branches. The reviews conclude that these nerves “with their extra-axial communications can be collectively considered a plexus.” The anatomy of this craniocevical nerve plexus needs to be revisited and appreciated in the anatomical literature. Ultimately, we hope that clinical anatomists from around the world will enjoy reading this issue and find its contents valuable in their teaching and research.

The Financing of Real Estate in Islamic Finance: A Critical Examination of the Bai-Bithaman Ajil and the Musharikah Mutanaqisah Models of Real Estate Financing.

The Islamic response to the ever present need of home financing manifests itself predominantly in ‘Bai-Bithaman Ajil’ (BBA) and ‘Musharakah Mutanaqisah’ (MM) inter alia. They are both essentially structured concepts consisting of Murabahah in the case of BBA, and musharakah and Ijarah in the case of MM. Yet the viability and use of these mediums have been in contention across the Islamic financing world. The contention pivots itself on the Shariah non-conformity of the BBA, with many Middle Eastern Scholars contending that the BBA is antithetical to the Shariah, while there is general consensus with regards to the Shariah conformity of MM. The paper explores the modus operandi of both these models and assesses their ethical dimensions from a Shariah conformity standpoint.