Middle Class Socioeconomic Status Research Articles

Public Reproductive Health Facilities: A Client-Satisfaction Survey

<p><strong>INTRODUCTION:</strong> Understanding clients’ perspectives on quality improvement programs is essential to achieve the goals of health services. Determining client satisfaction could help decision makers to implement programs fit to their needs as perceived by service providers and clients. This study aimed to assess the level of satisfaction among women attending health centers regarding the services received in governmental health facilities in Shiraz, southern Iran.</p><p><strong>METHOD:</strong> This cross-sectional study was performed in 24 urban health centers. Using systematic random sampling method, 8 clinics were assigned to each group. Then questionnaires were distributed among 240 married women in 15-49 year-old age group who had referred to selected clinics for receiving some services. For data analysis, SPSS version 15 software and Chi-square statistical procedure were used to evaluate clients’ satisfaction.</p><p><strong>RESULTS:</strong> Data showed that 101 out of 240 respondents were completely satisfied with the personnel as well as the health center. Furthermore, satisfaction was found to be the highest among clients of those centers ranked as middle class socioeconomic status, while no significant difference was found between centers based on their socioeconomic status.</p><p><strong>CONCLUSION: </strong>The results of the present study would enable policy-makers to effectively improve the quality of health care, keeping a balance between providers’ and patients’ perspectives on the quality of health care.</p>

Impact of Socio-Economic Status, Rural Background and Gender on the Prevalence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Background : Prevalence of COPD and resistance towards drugs available for its treatment are increasing day by day. Objectives : To assess the impact of socio-economic status, rural background and gender on the prevalence of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Methods : This observational, prospective, open study was conducted in the Department of Chest&TB Rajindra Hospital, Patiala. A total of 250 patients were included in the study over a period of 1 year of mild to very severe stage of COPD according to GOLD guidelines for COPD 2011. Impact of rural background, household medium of cooking food, male: female ratio of disease occurrence, and patient's socio-economic status were evaluated using modified kuppuswami grading. Results : In the rural population 100 patients out of 215 patients were males and 115 patients were females showing the rising trend of COPD in females of rural background and using biomass combustion and kerosene stove as the medium for cooking food, moreover most of the patients were living in the overcrowding. According to modified kuppuswami classification of socio-economic status, 170 patients were in the lower lower class, and 45 patients were in lower middle class socio-economic status in the rural background. Conclusion : Highest prevalence of COPD was seen in 51-60 years age group and among the patients of rural background with 215 patients (86%) affected with COPD out of 250 patients. With modified kuppuswami grading of Socio-economic status (SES), we found out that maximum patients in the rural background were from lower lower class SES thus signifying that poor socio-economic status can be a link to COPD.

Motor delays in MDMA (ecstasy) exposed infants persist to 2 years

BackgroundRecreational use of 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy, MDMA) is increasing worldwide. Its use by pregnant women causes concern due to potentially harmful effects on the developing fetus. MDMA, an indirect monoaminergic agonist and reuptake inhibitor, affects the serotonin and dopamine systems. Preclinical studies of fetal exposure demonstrate effects on learning, motor behavior, and memory. In the first human studies, we found prenatal MDMA exposure related to poorer motor development in the first year of life. In the present study we assessed the effects of prenatal exposure to MDMA on the trajectory of child development through 2years of age. We hypothesized that exposure would be associated with poorer mental and motor outcomes. Materials and MethodsThe DAISY (Drugs and Infancy Study, 2003–2008) employed a prospective longitudinal cohort design to assess recreational drug use during pregnancy and child outcomes in the United Kingdom. Examiners masked to drug exposures followed infants from birth to 4, 12, 18, and 24months of age. MDMA, cocaine, alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and other drugs were quantified through a standardized clinical interview. The Bayley Scales (III) of Mental (MDI) and Motor (PDI) Development and the Behavior Rating Scales (BRS) were primary outcome measures. Statistical analyses included a repeated measures mixed model approach controlling for multiple confounders. ResultsParticipants were pregnant women volunteers, primarily white, of middle class socioeconomic status, average IQ, with some college education, in stable partner relationships. Of 96 women enrolled, children of 93 had at least one follow-up assessment and 81 (87%) had ≥ two assessments. Heavier MDMA exposure (M=1.3±1.4 tablets per week) predicted lower PDI (p<.002), and poorer BRS motor quality from 4 to 24months of age, but did not affect MDI, orientation, or emotional regulation. Children with heavier exposure were twice as likely to demonstrate poorer motor quality as lighter and non-exposed children (O.R.=2.2, 95%, CI=1.02–4.70, p<.05). DiscussionInfants whose mothers reported heavier MDMA use during pregnancy had motor delays from 4months to two years of age that were not attributable to other drug or lifestyle factors. Women of child bearing age should be cautioned about the use of MDMA and MDMA-exposed infants should be screened for motor delays and possible intervention.

Study of Prevalence of Type II Diabetics in Post-appendectomy Patients in Rajasthan Population

110 Patients (65 male, & 45 females) who were non-Diabetics, Non-Hypertensive of different age groups were studied 4.1% of male and 2.1% of females developed type-2 diabetics within one 45 days of the appendectomy. Both sexes were belonged to middle class socio-economic status. The age group of the patients was 21to 45 who developed type-2 diabetics. This study creates many ifs and buts that, Diabetics type-2 could be due to both genetic and environmental factors. (1).If appendix is an vestigial organ or immunological in function (2)

Risk Factors for DOTS Treatment Default Among New HIV-TB Coinfected Patients in Nalgonda (Dist.) Telangana (State): A Case Control Study.

Background:The therapeutic regimens as recommended by the Revised National TB Control Programme (RNTCP) have been shown to be highly effective for both preventing and treating tuberculosis, but poor adherence to medication is a major barrier to its global control.Aim and Objectives:The study was conducted to assess the influence of patient related factors for DOTS Treatment Default among HIV-TB Co-infected cases.Setting and Design:This was a case control study conducted in Nalgond, Telangana.Materials and Methods:All new HIV-TB coinfected and DOTS-defaulted patients registered under RNTCP for the period from January 2010 to December 2012 were selected. Of the 154 patients, 23 had died and 11 could not be traced, and these were excluded. Thus the total number of available cases were 120 for those age- and sex-matched controls (HIV-TB coinfected patients and those who had completed the DOTS regimen successfully) were selected.Results:The mean age was 36.5 ± 9 years; the majority (23.3%) of patients defaulted during the second month of treatment. Significant risk factors associated with defaulting included unskilled occupation [adjusted odds ratio (AOR: 3.56; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.1-11.56], lower middle class socioeconomic status (AOR: 17.16; 95% CI: 3.93-74.82), small family size (AOR: 21.3; 95% CI: 6.4-70.91), marital disharmony (AOR: 6.78; 95% CI: 1.93-23.76), not being satisfied with the conduct of health personnel (AOR: 7.38; 95% CI: 2.32-23.39), smoking (AOR: 8.5; 95% CI: 2.31-31.21), and side effects of drugs (AOR: 4.18; 95% CI: 1.35-12.9).Conclusion:Unskilled occupation, marital disharmony, small family size, lower middle class socioeconomic status, not being satisfied with the conduct of health personnel, smoking, and drug side effects were significantly associated with defaulting. Information on the pattern of tuberculosis (TB), the outcome of anti-tuberculosis treatment (ATT), and the factors associated with it will help in planning interventions to improve adherence to DOTS treatment.

Prevalence of obesity among the school going adolescents in urban Bangalore

Background: Obesity, one of the most widespread and major problems affecting children and adolescents is of global nutritional concern. We conducted this study to estimate the prevalence of obesity among urban Bangalore school going adolescents. Material and Methods: School based cross-sectional study was conducted in schools in Bangalore during December 2012 to November 2013. The students were given a pre-designed structured questionnaire which consisted of questions to be answered by the student, with the help of his/her parents at home. Anthropometric measurements were taken to determine the prevalence of obesity. Results: This was an observational study consisting of 748 children is undertaken to study the prevalence of obesity. Prevalence of obesity in adolescents was found to be 5.9% in the present study. Prevalence of obesity was highest among in 15 year old adolescents (9.3%) as compared to the overall prevalence of 5.9% (p = 0.039). The prevalence of obesity among adolescents had a birth weight >3.5kg was 10.7% (p= 0.069). Among obese adolescents, 79.5% had mixed diet pattern. Among adolescents with family history of obesity, 22.9% were obese as compared to 4.1% prevalence of obesity among adolescents without family history of obesity. Majority of obese adolescents belonged to upper middle class socioeconomic status (9.6%) (p = 0.028). Conclusion: There is a significant prevalence of obesity among adolescents of urban Bangalore. Mixed diet, upper middle class SES and family history of obesity have a strong correlation with the prevalence of obesity in adolescents.

Faye: A 14-Year Old Gifted Disabled Girl and how she Overcame her Learning Disabilities - Prologue: Characteristics of Gifted Families Seeking Counseling

Most parents meeting me for counseling regarding their gifted children share some common characteristics. 1. They are usually of middle- and upper middle-class socio-economic status, but by no means rich. Both parents are salaried employees, and those who are not, have their own private lawyers', accountants', doctors', physical- or mental health professionals companies or businesses; 2. A very high percentage of the parents are professionals in education, counseling, or psychology. When not, they are well-read in child development, educational psychology, sociology, education in general and education of the gifted in particular; 3. Almost all families have at least 2 children; the majority are 3-child families and the minority – 4-child families. A high rate of the fathers are married for the second time; in most of these cases the father has children from his former marriage as well; 4. I am almost never the first priority as a counselor of the parents. Quite often I am perceived by them as the last resort, after at least one other intervention – in some cases after three or even four other trials. In some of these cases, especially after long, unsuccessful interventions, it is not easy to convince the child to meet me after such disappointments. 5. In spite of the fact that many parents of gifted girls and adolescent females approach me either by telephone or by mail, for example: 36 in the year 2014 (see David, in press), they almost never make an appointment for a counseling session, and when they do – they cancel it quite frequently. Even when a family with a gifted family makes it for the counseling session, it rarely wishes to start treatment. This is quite puzzling, taking into account the fact that the problems of many of these girls are severe; for example: in 2014 all children and adolescents threatening to commit suicide were made by girls, while only one girl started treatment with me – a 6-year old adorable girl who was not in any danger whatsoever. As for boys – because of time limitation I can have less than one third of the candidates for intervention.

Parent Stress in Childhood Cancer

The objective of the study was to assess level of stress of the parents with a child suffering from cancer. A total of 396 parents of which 146 fathers and 250 mothers were recruited from the National Institute of Cancer Research &amp; Hospital, Bangabandhu Sheik Mujib Medical University, Dhaka Medical College Hospital and Dhaka Shishu Hospital (DSH), Dhaka from January 2011 to November 2011. They were selected consecutively on the basis of the defined criteria. The research instruments were interviewer questionnaire and stress measuring standard scales. Results showed that all of the parents were found educated. In graduate and above, fathers were comparatively higher educated than that of mothers. In profession, 48.7%(n=193) were household workers, 33.7%(n=133) service holders and 17.6%(n=70) were businessmen. The monthly family income of the respondent were Tk. 10,000 to 20,000 in 77.0%(n=305). Results also showed that 86.8%(n=344) of them in both sexes had age in between 18 to 40 years of which 44.9%(n=178) had age 31-40 years and 41.9%(n=166) were 18-30 years respectively. Only 13.2%(n=52) of both sexes had age above 40 years. The mean age of them were 33 ± 8 years. The type of cancers among the children of the respondents was described in the Table 2. The results showed that 61.4%(n=243) of the children had been suffering form leukemia, 17.4%(n=69) lymphoma, 8.3%(n=33) reticuloblastoma, 2.5%(n=10) neuroblastoma, 1.1%(n=4) solid tumors and 9.3%(n=48) were from other cancers such as embryoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, testicular tumors etc. The age of the children who had been suffering from different type of cancers was summarized in the Table-3. About 44.4%(n=176) of the children had age 1-5 years, 35.6%(n=141) age 6-10 years and 20.0%(n=79) were of age 11-15 years respectively.Leukemia was found the highest incidence among all age groups of the boys and girls. Results also showed that 63.8%(n=253) of the parents had certainly affected due to the stress. About 6.7%(n=26) of the parents had severely affected and 28.7%(n=114) may be affected induced by the cancers of their children. The poorly educated, up to class-X, fathers and mothers constituted 49.8%(n=197) were found certainly affected with the stress. Middle age group (31-40 years) having middle class socioeconomic status had also similar characteristics of the stress among the respondents. In duration of the disease at the time of assessment, results showed that 21.8%(n=86) of the parents with one child suffering from cancer in between 7-12 months were found certainly and severely affected with the stress. Careful designed investigations of the long-term psychological and behavioral consequences of the parents are vital important for early interventions to assess and treat psychological distress of them. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bmj.v41i1.18773 Bangladesh Medical Journal 2012 Vol. 41 No. 1; 8-13

Prevalence of anxiety symptoms among the clients maintained in methadone maintenance treatment programme at Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital

Background: The symptoms of anxiety are widely prevalent among the former opioid addicts in methadone maintenance treatment (MMT). It is clinically important to be aware of the severity of the co-morbidity as it plays a crucial role in the methadone dosage, length of time in treatment and the relapse rate and the co-existence of co-morbidity has been described as the factor which worsens the prognosis. Aim: to study the prevalence of the symptoms of anxiety among MMT clients Methods: a descriptive, survey and a cross- sectional study, 60 MMT clients were selected who had been attending the MMTP for more than 2 months and were given with semistructured proforma specifically designed for this study only. Then after, they were evaluated for the anxiety symptoms with Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Finally, the information obtained from the demographic profile and the rating scale were analyzed with the help of computer program SPSS. Results: The study showed around 41.7 % of the patients had symptoms of anxiety with varying severity. Correlates of presence of anxiety symptom among MMT client in the present study showed higher prevalence among age group 20-29(88%), 66% were separated and 64% were unmarried, 50% were Buddhist, majority of the case were chhetri (70%), 75% had primary level education, 67% were unemployed, and 65% from middle class socioeconomic status. Limitation: The study was a cross sectional, which showed only the symptoms of anxiety not the disorder and the drug use, withdrawals itself, could distort evaluation and lead to misdiagnosis of anxiety. Conclusion: The major risk factor for was male gender, separated, primary education level, students and middle socio-economic status.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jonmc.v1i1.7283 Journal of Nobel Medical College Vol.1(1) 2011 15-19

The Role of Negative Evidence in the Acquisition of Sociocultural Aspects of First Language

Children learn their native language in a relatively rapid time and are able to communicate from very early using language. But is the acquisition of their native culture and native language dependent on each other (LeVine & Norman, 2001; Riesman, 1993)? The present study aims to investigate the extent to which parents provide their children with direct and indirect negative feedback while they are acquiring sociocultural aspects of their language. A group of parents (N=75) from three social backgrounds were interviewed. The results showed that parents used direct negative feedback more than indirect negative evidence while correcting a culturally inappropriate utterance (calling parents by their first names). Also it was found that parents from middle class socioeconomic status used more direct negative evidence than parents from a working class background who showed no significant difference regarding the use of different types of negative feedback. These results show the importance of negative feedback in the acquisition of sociocultural and pragmatic aspects of the native language.

Sexual behaviour, knowledge, attitude and practices regarding HIV/AIDS amongst female sex workers (FSWs) in red light area of Mumbai city

Background: HIV/AIDS is not only a public health problem but also a social, political and economic challenge. The key concern with HIV infection is not only about infected person, but also about the chain of people infected by that individual and that h/she will probably infect in the future. The prevalence of HIV infection in India has been steadily increasing over the past few decades. Commercial sex workers and their clients are at highest risk for HIV infection and transmission. Objective: The present study describes the sexual behaviour, knowledge, attitude and practices in context to HIV/AIDS amongst female sex workers (FSWs) in red light area of Mumbai city. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional community based study was conducted among female sex workers in red light area of Mumbai city during period of October 2008 to September 2009. A total 103 female sex workers were selected and interviewed. The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software (version 13.0). Results: In the present study, the mean age of the FSWs was 26.4 ± 5.2 years and 43.8% belonged to lower middle class socio-economic status. Most of the FSWs responded poverty (84%) and broken family (76%) as the main reasons for resorting to the sex trade. Majority of the FSWs (72.8%) were illiterate and more than half (67%) did not have any children. Most of the FSWs (84.5%) were aware about HIV/AIDS but only 33% were aware of the status of their partner. Only 13.6% FSWs knew that HIV could be transmitted to the child through breast feeding from an infected mother. Conclusion: Misconception about HIV was very high. Most of the FSWs in the present study had first sexual debut at a very young age. Routine screening and periodic surveys are warranted in order for early detection of infections including HIV and other STDs.

Cigarette smoking as part of a syndemic among young men who have sex with men ages 13-29 in New York City.

The prevalence of cigarette smoking among young men who have sex with men (YMSM) is significantly higher than among their heterosexual peers. We undertook an analysis to examine cigarette smoking in relation to demographic factors and other risk behaviors among 580 YMSM, ages 13-29, in New York City. Cross-sectional data were collected as part of larger study of risk behaviors using palm devices and targeted active recruitment strategies across all five boroughs of the city. Multivariate modeling suggests that Asian or Pacific Islander and White YMSM are more likely to report cigarette smoking than other racial and ethnic groups, as are men reporting a middle class socioeconomic status. In addition, smoking was related to the likelihood of using a variety of illicit substances, as well as alcohol and pharmaceuticals without a prescription, during the period of assessment. YMSM who smoke cigarettes reported a greater number of casual sex partners and a greater number of transactional sex partners than non-smokers. Episodic analysis of sexual behaviors with casual partners indicated that smokers were more likely to engage in illicit drug and alcohol use immediately before or during sex than did non-smokers. These findings are understood as part of a larger syndemic among YMSM, and suggest that smoking prevention and cessation programs should be embedded as part of larger more holistic health and wellness programs targeting YMSM.

Health Care Behaviors and Decision-Making Processes among Enrollees in a State High-Risk Insurance Pool: Focus Group Findings

To better understand the relationship between health insurance coverage and health care behaviors of persons with potentially disabling conditions enrolled in a state high-risk insurance pool. Six focus groups with risk pool enrollees at two sites. Suburban areas in the state of Kansas. Forty-two individuals 29 to 62 years, all with potentially disabling physical or mental health conditions. Qualitative analysis of focus group transcripts using pile sorting and theme identification. High premiums and deductibles limit participants' ability to afford basic health services and access to prescription medications despite their middle-class socioeconomic status. Participants report delaying or forgoing needed medical care because of lack of coverage and/or out-of-pocket costs. They employ numerous and potentially dangerous strategies to minimize costs, especially for prescription medications. Some report "saving up" needed procedures until their total costs will exceed that year's deductible. Individuals in the risk pool were making medical decisions on the basis of cost rather than need. Many shared stories of medical complications as a result of delayed care, and most expressed stress related to the difficulty of making decisions about their care and use of prescribed medications. The individual, nongroup insurance market, with its higher out-of-pocket costs, may not meet the needs of people with chronic health conditions.

Aripiprazole in Schizotypal Personality

Sir: Schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) is characterized by odd, eccentric behavior; inappropriate or constricted affect; odd beliefs or magical thinking; circumstantial, metaphorical, or stereotyped thinking manifested by odd speech; anxiety in social situations; and cognitive or perceptual distortions.1 Studies have been conducted on the efficacy of haloperidol,2 thiothixene,3 olanzapine,4 and risperidone5 in SPD. However, efficacy of aripiprazole in SPD has not been reported. Aripiprazole is a novel antipsychotic with a unique mechanism of action. It is a partial agonist of D2 and D3 dopamine receptors and 5-HT1A serotonin receptors, which are, respectively, responsible for its efficacy on positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia and its antidepressant and antianxiety actions.6–8 Hence, it is called a dopamine-serotonin system stabilizer.9,10 Aripiprazole has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in the treatment of schizophrenia. A search of English-language publications in PubMed using the keywords schizotypal personality disorder and aripiprazole retrieved no published reports or articles. Herein, we describe a patient with SPD of 5 years’ illness duration who had never been treated with any medications and who responded to treatment with aripiprazole. Case report. Mr. A, a 22-year-old engineering student of middle-class socioeconomic status and urban background, presented to our hospital in August 2007 with an insidious onset and continuous course of illness of 5 years’ duration characterized by odd and eccentric behavior, oddities in speech, avoidance of social situations, deteriorating academic performance, idiosyncratic repetitive behaviors, and magical thinking. His family members were concerned about his odd and eccentric behavior, social dysfunction, and academic decline. The above symptoms could not be attributed to any clear-cut psychotic disorders, mood disorders, substance use disorders, or general medical conditions. He had never received treatment for the symptoms. The patient's history and family history were noncontributory. Structured assessment conducted at baseline using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders11 and Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders12 revealed that Mr. A had schizotypal personality disorder. The Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ)13 revealed social anxiety, odd beliefs, odd behaviors, blunted affect, suspiciousness, lack of close friends, and magical thinking. A baseline score of 4 on the Clinical Global Impressions-Severity of Illness scale (CGI-S)14 was noted. Other baseline psychodiagnostic assessments were also conducted, such as the Object Sorting Test, Thematic Apperception Test, and Rorschach Inkblot Test, which revealed the absence of pathognomonic signs of psychosis. After giving informed consent, Mr. A was started on treatment with aripiprazole 10 mg at night. At 2-month (week 8) follow-up, the patient reported a 70% decrease in his symptoms, started attending his engineering college regularly, and showed interest in his studies. His family members reported marked improvement in his social and academic functioning. They also reported that his odd ideas, eccentric behaviors, magical thinking, and suspiciousness were reduced to minimal. His interaction with friends and his mood also improved. His CGI-S score was 3 (mildly ill), and his CGI-Improvement score was 2 (showing much improvement). This patient with SPD had a 5-year duration of untreated illness and was assessed with structured instruments. He responded to treatment with 10 mg of aripiprazole. Currently, thiothixene, haloperidol, risperidone, and olanzapine have been documented to be effective in treatment of SPD. This case report assumes importance in the light of the paucity of aripiprazole studies in SPD. However, the choice of antipsychotic medications is largely based on side effect profile. Available data on aripiprazole reveal that it is an effective medication with a benign adverse effect profile.9,10 Aripiprazole, being a dopamine- serotonin system stabilizer, is hence an ideal drug to target the odd and eccentric behavior, stereotyped thinking, social anxiety symptoms, and obsessive symptoms of SPD. Future double-blind, placebo-controlled studies examining the effectiveness of aripiprazole in the treatment of SPD are needed. Ajay Kumar, M.Phil. Ravikant Pinjarkar, M.Phil. Nitin Anand, M.A., M.Phil. M. Manjula, M.Phil., Ph.D. Department of Mental Health and Social Psychology Suresh Bada Math, M.D., D.N.B., P.G.D.M.L.E. Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, (Deemed University), Bangalore, India

Perceived Social Support and Early Adolescents’ Achievement: The Mediational Roles of Motivational Beliefs and Emotions

Although a bulk of literature shows that perceived social support (PSS) influences academic achievement, the mechanisms through which this effect operates received little empirical attention. The present study examined the multiple mediational effects of motivational beliefs (competence beliefs and subjective value) and emotions (anxiety and enjoyment) that may account for the empirical link between PSS (from parents, peers and teachers) and mathematics achievement. The participants of the study were 238 grade 7 students (average age = 13.2 years, girls = 54%, predominantly native Dutch middle class socioeconomic status). A bootstrap analysis (a relatively new technique for testing multiple mediation) revealed that the motivational beliefs and the emotions, jointly, partially mediated the effect of PSS on achievement. The proportion of the effects mediated, however, varied across the support sources from 55% to 75%. The findings lend support to the theoretical assumptions in the literature that supportive social relationships influence achievement through motivational and affective pathways.

Attitude Shifts: A Qualitative Analysis of Students' Awareness and Reaction to the Homeless

Perceptions toward homelessness among 23 undergraduates were explored through individual, semi-structured interviews. Several higher-education institutions have incorporated non-traditional learning components to promote altruism and empathy among students toward the poor and homeless. We focused on one Midwestern university's experiential approach that had a “poverty-immersion” experience within a selected course. We explored how the poverty-immersion weekend altered undergraduates' perceptions of the poor and persons in homeless milieu. Students evidenced marked alterations in their understandings of the homeless: dispelling assumptions to consider individuals in light of personal and circumstantial situations that led to their states of homelessness, and the holistic nature of their needs. Students were challenged to reconsider the attitudes towards the homeless as expressed by those in the middle-class socioeconomic status.

Allochtone kinderen tijdens het eerste levensjaar: invloed van sociaaleconomische en etnische status op specifieke ontwikkelingsdomeinen

Immigrant children in the first year of life: influence of socio-economic and ethnic status on specific developmental domains A vast amount of research indicates that children from an ethnic minority, even those from the second and the third generation immigrants, show an increasing number of learning and developmental problems going from kindergarten to the first grades of elementary school. Therefore, early detection and prevention becomes increasingly crucial, in part to control the enormous costs of these problems. In our study (N=406), developmental profiles of non-western children from a lower and middle class socio-economic status (SES) were investigated. We looked at ethnicity, poverty and their interaction, because they lead to a considerable leeway in development from the first year of life. The vulnerabilities of these children are especially found in the cognitive and the linguistic/communicative sphere. But also their strengths, mainly on the socio-emotional domain, are shown. Next to ethnicity, poverty is another risk factor in child development. The influence of being from a low SES background is broader then that of ethnicity because it impedes all developmental lines: language, cognition, motor, self-management and socio-emotional development, and its negative effect size is significantly greater then that of ethnicity. A significant interaction effect means that poverty impedes immigrant children more severely than autochthon children. The main results from our study on development in the first year of life are translated into principles for early preventive developmental guidance programs, more specifically we introduce the need for developmental line specific prevention that starts in the period that precedes kindergarten.

Mobile Phone Users: Another High Health Risk Group

The mobile (cellular/cell) phone combines the technology of the wireless communication with that of the telephone and uses specific frequencies called microwaves, a sub-set of radio waves with frequencies ranging from 300 MHz to 3GHz. Cellular phones and their base stations emit pulsed microwaves in the environment with phone users exposed in the near-field and the general population exposed under far-field conditions. Some reported biological effects associated with these radiations include radiofrequency sickness, electroencephalographic and blood pressure changes, cancer risks and genotoxicity . A survey of persons using mobile phones was conducted in order to gather data on mobile phone usage patterns, which were maintained on a pre-designed questionnaire. There were 91 males and 9 females (16-55 yrs) of which 76 belonged to upper middle class socio economic status. They worked as businessmen, teachers, bank employees, doctors, surveyors, sales executives, mechanics, medical representatives and some of them were students. The duration of phone use varied from 1-5 yrs, with daily use of phone from 1-18 hr. They mostly kept the phones in their pockets while on move or on the table when in office or when at home. Some users complained of sleeplessness, headaches, memory loss, loss of attention and heating sensation on mobile phone use. Since exposure to radiofrequency radiations has been reported to affect physiological, neurological, congnitive and behavioural changes and to induce, initiate and promote carcinogenesis, such an underlying threat to human health also exists for mobile phone users.

The prevalence of mental disorders in school‐age children attending a general paediatric department in southern India

This study was conducted over a period of 18 months in a medical college hospital in southern India. Of 313 children of age 5 and above referred for detailed psychiatric evaluation, 101 were found to have a mental disorder according to DSM-III-R criteria; the remaining had organic disorders. Children above 8 years (74%) registered higher morbidity. There was no sex difference in overall morbidity. Precipitating factors were discernible in half of these cases, of which school-related problems were found in the majority. Almost two-thirds had multiple stressors, of which chronic family and social adversity (39%) and learning disabilities (28%) were common. Mental disorders were significantly related to urban background, middle-class socioeconomic status and literate parents compared with age- and sex-matched controls. There was no significant relationship with the type of family and number of siblings. Conversion disorder (31%) was the commonest, followed by conduct disorders (16%). The symptoms, stressors, response to treatment and the transcultural aspects are also discussed.

A cross-cultural study of self-image: Indian, American, Australian, and Irish adolescents

Planning for research and youth welfare programs in every developed and developing country is essential if man envisages the normalization of sick adolescents. Adolescent unit programs are needed in India, as in all parts of the United States, and should be an integral part of medical institutes in every university. Actually, the problem of generation gap, ego identity, and subcultures (i.e., peer group pressure) creating negative attitudes in youth is one of the most explosive problems that behavioral scientists face in the modern era. The present project is an attempt to study the self-image, ego strength, self-esteem, or level of psychological well-being of a normal adolescent group of Indians and to compare this with youth of three other nationalities-American, Irish, and Australian. To measure the self-esteem of an individual, 11 areas of conflict including impulse control, emotional tone, body and self-image, social attitudes, morals, sexual attitudes, family relations, external mastery, vocational and educational goals, psychopathology, and superior adjustment have been examined. The Hindi version of the Offer Self-image Questionnaire has been used. The sample consists of 400 boys and 400 girls, ages 14 to 18, of middle class socioeconomic status; the educational level is high school/intermediate. It is concluded that American and Australian adolescents, in general, have higher self-esteem or ego strength than do Indian and Irish adolescents, respectively.