Middle Bronze Age Settlement Research Articles

Obsidian and Rock Crystal Artefacts as Prestige Finds Based on Raw Material Resources in Çine-Tepecik

Abstract Within its location on the Çine plain, south of the Great Meander River, Çine-Tepecik is an important settlement inhabited continuously from the Chalcolithic to the end of the Bronze Age. Çine-Tepecik reflects an advanced lithic assemblage based on different raw material resources from the earliest period. Obsidian is among the earliest finds in Tepecik showing interregional trade based on the system of exchange, and is a resource that societies prioritized in their social lives and interregional communication since the beginning of the settlement process. Starting from the 4th millennium BCE until the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, obsidian was obtained from three main resources in the Aegean. These are Melos and Antiparos from the Cyclades; Giali from the Dodecanese and Göllü Dağ, Nenezi and Acıgöl from Central Anatolia. These connections, based on trade with the Aegean and Central Anatolia, reveal a skilled craft of obsidian tool production, as well as an obsidian and rock crystal vessel tradition in Tepecik during the Middle Bronze Age. The assemblage, which has a special meaning among prestige products, belongs to a craft activity that requires skill and experience, and is an indicator of socio-cultural richness. During the 2nd millennium BCE, in the wide geographical region covering Anatolia, Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean obsidian and rock crystal vessels were among the special items produced for the royal or elite class. The stone vessel assemblage reflects the political and economic power of these regions, and also provides an understanding of interregional cultural and commercial connections. In the Çine-Tepecik Middle Bronze Age settlement, the obsidian and rock crystal vessel traditions followed a similar chronological development as the geography extending to Anatolia, the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean, and brings new finds to regional archaeology.

A micro-geoarchaeological look at adaptive and glocal socio-economic aspects: the case of Middle Bronze Age Tel Dor, Israel

Adaptative mechanisms used by coastal urban Middle Bronze Age (MBA) settlements in the southern Levant are regularly studied from the point of view of maritime connectivity. Here we look into the adaptive mechanisms of MBA Tel Dor by investigating the utilization of geogenic (rock, soil, sediment) resources for construction — materials used for wall foundations, mudbrick superstructure and wall plaster — and for pottery making. The composition and fabric of archaeological materials were compared to those of local natural sediments from two boreholes. The results show that stones for wall construction relied on the local kurkar, that red-coloured mudbricks were produced from local Carmel coast sediments, while beige-coloured mudbricks were produced by mixing local red sediments with non-coastal calcareous rock fragments, and that wall plaster was made of non-coastal geogenic marl. From a small pilot sample of pottery, six petrofabrics were identified, including the local Carmel coast, along with five other, distant, production centres. These characteristics suggest that while the site’s inhabitants utilized local resources, they were firmly interconnected with regional, ‘global’, Mediterranean networks, suggesting MBA Dor was a glocalized society, and that diversification of resources served as a promotor of resilience for this coastal society, allowing it to thrive for millennia.

Disentangling the origins of viticulture in the western Mediterranean

We present direct evidence of early grape domestication in southern Italy via a multidisciplinary study of pip assemblage from one site, shedding new light on the spread of viticulture in the western Mediterranean during the Bronze Age. This consist of 55 waterlogged pips from Grotta di Pertosa, a Middle Bronze Age settlement in the south of the Italian peninsula. Direct radiocarbon dating of pips was carried out, confirming the chronological consistency of the samples with their archaeological contexts (ca. 1450–1200 BCE). The extraordinary state of conservation of the sample allowed to perform geometric morphometric (GMM) and paleogenetic analyses (aDNA) at the same time. The combination of the two methods has irrefutably shown the presence of domestic grapevines, together with wild ones, in Southern Italy during the Middle/Late Bronze Age. The results converge towards an oriental origin of the domestic grapes, most likely arriving from the Aegean area through the Mycenaeans. A parent/offspring kinship was also recognised between a domestic/wild hybrid individual and a domestic clonal group. This data point out a little known aspect of the diffusion of the first viticulture in Italy, and therefore in the western Mediterranean, which involved the hybridization between imported domestic varieties with, likely local, wild vines.

Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Czeladź Wielka – The Next Step Toward Determining the Habitation Model, Chronology, and Pottery of the Silesian-Greater Poland Tumulus Culture

Abstract The article presents the results of research on the habitation model, chronology, and pottery production of the Silesian-Greater Poland Tumulus Culture at Czeladź Wielka settlement (Góra county). The site of the Czeladź Wielka is the first published settlement of the Tumulus culture from the area, providing the first evidence for developing a model of habitation change between the Early and Late Bronze Age. The typochronological analyses allowed positioning the finds in the Middle Bronze Age, while radiocarbon dating placed the site between the late sixteenth and fifteenth century BC. Quantification of technological traits were used to define the general characteristics of Tumulus culture pottery in the region showing the preference for coarse, undecorated, or textile-impressed ceramics. Spatial analyses indicate the presence of a clustered settlement pattern characterized by discard of ceramic material in cultural layer. The findings suggest continuity of certain cultural traits from the preceding Únětice and the influence of contemporary Trzciniec cultural circle.

The Middle Bronze Age site of Berstett Langenberg (Lower Rhine), cross-referenced approaches

Abstract. Excavated in 2018 as part of the western bypass of Strasbourg, the Berstett Langenberg site of nearly two hectares (site no. 5.6 of the project) has revealed occupations dating from the Late Neolithic to the Final La Tène period. The Bronze Age occupation is characterised by 43 features spread over almost the entire area, while the 31 Middle Bronze Age features include ten pits, storage pits (11), two possible excavated buildings, three slits and five windfalls. No buildings were found, but areas devoid of features surrounded by pits suggest the location of buildings, as do the remains of cob (earth and wood architecture). The large quantity of ceramic remains uncovered (160 vessels), as well as several radiocarbon dates have made it possible to better characterise the typochronology of the ensembles for the Bronze D and the transition from Bronze D to Bronze D. Biogeochemical analysis of the inner walls of ten vessels has revealed animal fats, as well as traces of vegetable oil (Brassicaceae) or resin (Pinaceae). In addition to the large quantity of pottery, which makes the site a reference point, other objects unearthed (lithics, fauna) provide supplementary information as to the late Middle Bronze Age settlement for which little is known in eastern France.

A Reassessment of the Middle Bronze Age Cultures in the Lake Orūmīyeh Basin, Iran

Abstract This article examines the Middle Bronze Age archaeological evidence from surveys and excavations conducted in the in the area of the Lake Orūmīyeh basin in what is now north-western Iran. The sites were first analysed with regard to their more general classification, for example in relation to their geographical locations or according to the presence or absence of fortification structures. Another aspect discussed in the article concerns pottery traditions and their territorial distribution. The situation from this perspective is particularly interesting and complex due to the identification over the years of three different pottery traditions. The results of these analyses have led to new proposals concerning the Middle Bronze Age settlement pattern in this area.

High-resolution sediment analysis reveals Middle Bronze Age byre-houses at the site of Oppeano (Verona province, NE Italy).

High-resolution sediment analysis allowed us to identify two Middle Bronze Age (MBA 1, 1650–1550 cal a BCE) byre-houses at the waterlogged site of Oppeano “4D”, south of Verona (Veneto region, NE Italy). The site lies in a low-lying valley incised by the Adige River in its LGM alluvial fan. In this fluvio-palustrine environment burial and taphonomic conditions were such that the archaeological record was extremely well preserved. The wooden elements making up basal parts of nine ‘huts’ were in fact exposed at Oppeano, and so were their internal accretion deposits. These featured finely laminated dung units deriving from the stalling of small herbivores, possibly ovicaprids, intercalated with repeated accumulations of wood ash. This was produced in large and multi-stratified hearths that were exposed within each hut. Organic petrology provided evidence of the production of wood tar inside one of the studied structures. At Oppeano 4D it was thus demonstrated that these structures were not just byres or stables, but spaces that housed humans together with animals at least during some periods of the year, hence byre-houses. The identification of byre-houses in a Middle Bronze Age settlement is key for the reconstruction of socio-economic aspects of Bronze Age economy and production systems.

The impact of Early to Middle Bronze Age settlements and farming on vegetation, ecology, nutrient flux and sedimentation at Lake Lucone, northern Italy

In this paper, we describe a 5500-year long core obtained from a lake in the Prealps of northern Italy to investigate the impact of human communities on the lacustrine environment. Specifically, we report micro-botanical proxies (upland and aquatic pollen, algae, cyanobacteria, dung spores, microcharcoal particles), sedimentary parameters (LOI steps, calcimetry, FTIR spectra) and nutrients (P forms, C/N and K) on paired samples in a high-resolution stratigraphy, dated by 14C AMS dating and tie point correlation. Independent archaeological evidence indicates the existence of lakeside settlements and farming in Bronze Age times from c. 4000 to 3300 cal yrs. BP. The impact of this Bronze Age village is recorded by an accumulation of plant detritus, pollen, charcoal and abundant wood and bone-derived ash. Intensive P mineralization by ash production was accompanied by the rapid burial of Pinorg, K, and microcharcoal. Correlated peaks of Porg and pasture plant pollen mark the contribution of animal husbandry to Porg lake sink. The nutrient flux produced by external catchment cropping contrasts with the internal flux discharged by prehistoric dwelling and in turn distinguishes domestic hearth production from a contribution by animal husbandry. Forest conditions and lake sedimentation returned to semi-natural baseline at the end of this 700-year long phase of Early to Middle Bronze Age settlement, but pollen proxies indicate that lake-side forests did not fully recover. Lake Lucone represents a key site, since it documents interactions between bronze Age settlements and related ecological impacts on both terrestrial environment and lacustrine sedimentation, as recorded in a continuous sequence, as well as the end of Bronze Age pile dwelling culture.

Plant economy of the Trzciniec culture based on charred plant remains from Pielgrzymowice 9 site, in the context of archaeobotanical finds from southern Poland

In the paper, new carpological data from Pielgrzymowice site 9 are presented in the context of archaeobotanical finds from southern Poland. The results were obtained from detailed analyses of 45 samples from 38 archaeological features. Only charred plant remains were taken into account as they are considered contemporaneous with the Middle Bronze Age settlement. Among the cultivated plants, Panicum miliaceum, Triticum dicoccum, Triticum monococcum and Triticum sp. were documented. Among wild plants, several taxa were found, including Chenopodium t. album, Chenopodium sp., Melandrium / Silene, Polygonum lapathifolium and Fallopia convolvulus, among others. In archaeobotanical samples, Geranium sp., cf. Lamiaceae also appeared. In addition, plants typical of grasslands, forests and ruderal areas were noted, such as Coronilla varia, Rumex acetosella, Plantago media, Plantago lanceolata, Stellaria graminea and Hypericum perforatum. These results were compared with data coming from nine sites of the Trzciniec culture from Lesser Poland to track the Middle Bronze Age plant-based economy in southern Poland.

The Interdisciplinary Approach of Some Middle Bronze Age Pottery from Eastern Romania

Prehistoric pottery is the most abundant material discovered in archaeological sites and represents the main element of knowledge about human communities from the past. This study presents a model of interdisciplinary investigation of pottery through several types of analyses, enabling the scientific study of this category of artifacts. The analyses were performed on 11 ceramic fragments from the Middle Bronze Age settlement of Piatra Neamț–Lutărie, Eastern Romania, considering information about the color, production technique, type, size, functionality and category of the vessel, but also data related to ceramic paste inclusions. The samples were studied by optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and micro-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (µFTIR). The results obtained provide important information regarding pottery manufacturing technologies, such as sources of the raw materials and firing temperatures, and revealed the functionality of various vessel categories within a prehistoric settlement.

Same or different? Interdisciplinary analyses on the Costișa and Monteoru pottery from Siliștea-Pe Cetățuie settlement

The archaeometric study of prehistoric pottery is an effective tool for investigating this abundant category of artifacts from an archaeological site. In this study, the physicochemical analyses used are optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), coupled with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and Micro-Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (μFTIR). Through these techniques were studied 48 ceramic fragments belonging to the Costișa and Monteoru ceramic groups from the Middle Bronze Age settlement from Siliștea-Pe Cetățuie. Also, the ceramic fragments were investigated macroscopically, using criteria such as color, production technique, type, size, functionality and category of the vessel. The obtained results provided important data related to the ceramic technologies of the two communities from the studied settlement.

Earthquake damage as a catalyst to abandonment of a Middle Bronze Age settlement: Tel Kabri, Israel.

For years there has been much speculation surrounding the abandonment of the Middle Bronze Age IIB palace of Tel Kabri, ca. 1700 BCE. There are no weapons, hoards of money and jewelry, or visible evidence for fire, which rules out hostile attack or conquest. There are also no indications of drought or environmental degradation that might have forced the inhabitants to vacate the site, nor mass graveyards to indicate a pandemic. The current study uses micro-geoarchaeological methods to show that the demise of the palace was rapid, with walls and ceilings collapsing at once prior to abandonment. Macroscopic data (stratigraphic and structural) from five excavation seasons were reexamined, showing that at least nine Potential Earthquake Archaeological Effects (PEAEs) are found and associated with the last occupation phase of the site’s palace. All lines of evidence point to the possibility that an earthquake damaged the palace, possibly to a point where it was no longer economically viable to repair. This conclusion is compounded by the discovery of a 1–3 m wide trench that cuts through the palace for 30 m, which may be the result of ground shaking or liquefaction caused by an earthquake. This study shows the importance of combining macro- and micro-archaeological methods for the identification of ancient earthquakes, together with the need to evaluate alternative scenarios of climatic, environmental, and economic collapse, as well as human-induced destruction before a seismic event scenario can be proposed.

Social formation and collapse in the Tisza-Maros region: dating the Maros Group and its Late Bronze Age successors

Abstract

LIVESTOCK COMPOSITION AND MEAT DIET OF THE POST-DOLMEN PEOPLE OF THE FOOTHILLS OF THE NORTH-WESTERN CAUCASUS (ACCORDING TO THE SHUSHUK SETTLEMENT DATA)

This article presents the results of the archaeozoological study of bone material from the dig with kitchen utensils of the Shushuk settlement in the foothills of Adygea (final of the late Bronze Age, post-dolmen horizon) - 692 definable fragments. Based on their analysis, the authors conclude that the livestock economy of the post-dolmen people was of a home-based, pasture-stall nature. Cattle is dominant (more than 60% of bones), followed by pigs, while sheep and goats make up only a small percent of the material - about 10%. Hunting did not play a significant role in this society. The horse found in the upper layers can be attributed to steppe influence. By comparing the composition of the Shushuk livestock with available data from Early and Middle Bronze Age settlements in the region, the researchers conclude that the overall composition of the Shushuk livestock bears a close resemblance to that of the Daguak-Dakhovsky settlement, which belongs to the Middle Bronze Age (dolmen culture). The analysis also takes into account comparative data on the livestock composition of contemporary steppe cultures (e.g. Belozersk and Kobyakovsk ones in the Lower Don) in which horses already played a significant role. The authors also attempt to trace the dynamic of change in livestock composition over time as represented by the chronological horizons (i.e. spits).

SYSTEMATIC FIELD SURVEY ON LIMES TRANSALUTANUS. SĂPATA CASE

Two adjoined forts and their surroundings, elements of the 3 rd century Roman frontier in Dacia – Limes Transalutanus , which were last archaeologically investigated in 1930, were recently systematic surface surveyed, resulting in the identification of the associated civilian settlement in what seemed, at first glance, as an unexpected location, more distant than other military vici the team had previously identified along the same frontier line. Not only the limits of the settlement at Sapata were established, but also the density of occupation and territory division into various functional areas, allowing further interpretations regarding the network of ancient local roads and a better understanding of the way in which the Romans adjusted their built facilities to available resources (water) or exploited the strategical features of the relief. Using an efficient, quick and rather inexpensive combination of survey methods (field walking and measurements of the magnetic susceptibility of the soil applied on a 4.8 ha surface, followed by pottery typological and spatial distribution analysis), the investigation team tried to mitigate the challenging vegetation situation, adjusting likewise to the limited resources of a scheduled research project. Data relevance was increased by applying statistical corrections and using complementary investigation methods in order to cover the various available types of land (relief, vegetation, visibility); while data integration was ensured employing a unitary spatial gridded system for fieldwork and also by relating the obtained results to the high resolution digital terrain model of the sites obtained during UAV photogrammetric aerial survey. In particular, the study takes the opportunity opened by the analysis of the Roman Age pottery found in Sapata vicus to debate on the significance of the traditional, yet not unitary perceived, scholarly division between ‘Chilia-Militari’ ware (dwelling on Dacian traditions) and Roman local production. The consistent percent of Chilia-Militari types in the collected lot and its uniform spatial distribution inside the civilian settlement raise questions about the potters’ identity, their social status and reason to revive older production techniques. Some data about a Middle Bronze Age settlement, belonging to Tei Culture, identified in the same surveyed area, are given also.

ASTRONOMY AND LANDSCAPE AT THE PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT VILLAGGIO DEI FARAGLIONI, USTICA, SICILY

The placement of the Middle Bronze Age settlement Villaggio dei Faraglioni on the Ustica island, one of the best preserved prehistoric village of the Mediterranean area, is analyzed from a cognitive point of view, taking into account archaeoastronomy and landscape archaeology aspects. It turns out that the place might have been selected because of its privileged position with respect to the landscape, better than conforming to utilitarian/defensive considerations, as instead occurs for contemporary, for instance Mycenaean, sites. From the village it was indeed possible to follow the rising and setting of the sun in the months close to the winter solstice on the two elevated peaks existing on the opposite side of the island, in a symmetric way. As a consequence, the inhabitants could determine the day of the winter solstice with an approximation of a few days, using this partial calendar for agricultural and navigational purposes. A possible astronomical orientation of the urban layout is also analyzed

Ritual, Rubbish or Everyday Life? Evidence from a Middle Bronze Age Settlement in Mid-Cornwall

The recognition of ritual and ritualized practices within the setting of Middle Bronze Age settlements has undoubtedly provided a useful way of interpreting archaeological deposits. There is, however, a danger that now that ritual has become widely accepted, the application of ‘meta’ or generic paradigms for explaining the archaeological record will lead to a loss of subtlety in interpretation, and that variation and diversity between settlements will be overlooked.This article addresses the evidence for the ritualized behaviour which has emerged from large-scale excavations of a Middle Bronze Age settlement at Scarcewater in mid-Cornwall and its adjacent surroundings. The character of overtly ritual and more subtle ritualized activity within the settlement, as well as the surrounding landscape will be considered for its individual character, and linked to a discussion of the influence of the ‘past’ upon Middle Bronze Age ritual traditions.

Radiocarbon Data of Funerary Discoveries from Middle Bronze Age Settlement at Miceşti–Cigaş (Alba County, Romania)

Radiocarbon Data of Funerary Discoveries from Middle Bronze Age Settlement at Miceşti–Cigaş (Alba County, Romania)

Middle Bronze Age Enclosures in the Norfolk Broads: a Case Study at Ormesby St Michael, England

Remnant field systems and enclosures are key indicators of social change during the 2nd millenniumbc– their study has considerable significance in terms of interpreting the Bronze Age in the eastern region. Despite widespread current interest in the topic, little if any evidence for Middle Bronze Age settlement and land division had been found in Norfolk prior to the investigations at Ormesby St Michael which form the focus of this paper. Here, archaeological excavations uncovered evidence for strip field systems, succeeded by a large and well dated enclosure containing at least two structures. These results are supplemented by cropmark evidence for other elements of the enclosure produced by the National Mapping Programme. When combined, the findings are of great significance since they indicate a Middle Bronze Age date for numerous comparable cropmarks recorded across the region as part of the National Mapping Programme, emphasising the crucial value of such work. It can now be suggested that the apparent dearth of Bronze Age field systems in Norfolk is not 'real', but the combined effect of limited excavation of such sites and misinterpretation of those that have been investigated.

Contextualizing Early Urbanization: Settlement Cores, Early States and Agro-pastoral Strategies in the Fertile Crescent During the Fourth and Third Millennia BC

This paper employs data from selected sample survey areas in the northern Fertile Crescent to demonstrate how initial urbanization developed along several pathways. The first, during the Late Chalcolithic period, was within a dense pattern of rural settlement. There followed a profound shift in settlement pattern that resulted in the formation of large walled or ramparted sites (‘citadel cities’) associated with a more dynamic phase of urbanization exemplified by short cycles of growth and collapse. By the later third millennium BC, the distribution of larger centres had expanded to include the drier agro-pastoral zone of northern and central Syria, termed here the ‘zone of uncertainty’. This configuration, in turn, formed the context for Middle Bronze Age settlement, and the pattern of political rivalries and alliances that typified the second millennium BC. Evidence is marshalled from archaeological surveys and landscape analyses to examine these multiple paths to urbanization from the perspectives of (a) staple production within major agricultural lowlands; (b) the shift towards higher risk animal husbandry within climatically marginal regions; (c) changes in local and inter-regional networks (connectivity); and (d) ties and rights to the land. Textile production forms the core of the proposed model, which emphasizes how the demand for wool and associated pasture lands opened up new landscapes for agro-pastoral production and settlement. The resultant landscapes of settlement are then compared with the picture in the southern Levant where a more restricted zone of uncertainty may have limited the opportunities for agro-pastoral production.