Midden Analysis Research Articles

EXCAVATING WAR AND IDLENESS: THE CASE OF SVÆRHOLT

ABSTRACT For the last decade, the World War II prisoner-of-war camp and battery at Sværholt in northernmost Norway have been objects of archaeological investigation. This article presents the results from excavations and associated studies, including new descriptions of extant structures and found artefacts, comparative osteological analyses of middens, and their implications. Our purpose in presenting these results is to: 1) explore what an extraordinary array of unearthed material can reveal about the conditions and fates of those involved in, or affected by, the German occupation during the war; 2) to show how the archaeology of Sværholt, with all its heterogeneity, leads us in a direction at variance with historical generalizations and expectations; 3) to convey how the extant ruins and remains provide affective glimpses into their formative causes: the abandonment and near-complete destruction of the battery, garrison, hamlet, and POW camp, during a few intense days of evacuation in November 1944.

Small game, estuaries, and nets: New perspectives on Norton culture coastal adaptations from a shell midden in Norton Sound, Alaska

Norton culture (ca. 740 BC–AD 1000) sites are ubiquitous across the western Arctic. Based on artifact and settlement data, it is generally agreed that Norton culture south of Seward Peninsula possessed a mixed marine-focused economy dominated by seasonally available Pacific salmon. However, the few direct studies of Norton subsistence, thus far, have suggested an emphasis on marine mammals rather than salmon. We present the results of a zooarchaeological midden analysis from the large Norton site of Difchahak (49-NOB-005) near Shaktoolik on Norton Sound, Alaska. We argue the faunal remains recovered from this site reflect its local estuarine system. Inhabitants were able to maintain year-round occupation of the region through an expansion of netting technology to non-salmon prey species. The economic focus at Difchahak was on mass capture of several seasonally available taxa, including salmon, mussels, saffron cod, ptarmigan, ducks, geese, and seal. Comparison of these faunal remains to those from Norton culture deposits at the neighboring site of Iyatayet suggests that differences between the localities are largely driven by geographically dependent prey-species distributions, and these two sites may represent complementary parts to a broad logistical foraging system.

Household Garbage: Classic period (ca. 300-900 CE) Maya Practices of Discard

What can the practices of discard tell us about Classic period Maya households? Most archaeological analyses of middens are concerned with an analysis of content: describing, classifying, and comparing midden contents to tell us about the people who left such remains. Yet much can be learned about households from studying the actual practices of getting rid of trash. This paper documents midden patterns from the Classic period Maya site of Motul de San Jose, Peten, Guatemala, and compares them with those found elsewhere in the Maya area. We reveal the ways in which trash deposition was integral to (1) defining household space, (2) marking the lifecycles of households, (3) the differential experience of social status, and (4) the possible expression of regional dispositions.

The effects of sampling on the analysis of archeological molluscan remains: A quantitative approach

Sampling is a practice that affects all stages of archeological research, and is a method frequently employed to manage the potentially vast quantities of material recovered from excavations. Current sampling methods used in the analyses of shell middens are largely based on those developed by the California School, and can be characterized by the implementation of small sample sizes during the excavation and analysis of shell deposits. The wider archeological sampling literature, however, has repeatedly demonstrated that the use of small sample sizes has the potential to result in the loss of substantial quantities of material, often grossly underestimating an assemblage's richness, and skewing abundance distributions. There is therefore a need to re-evaluate the current sampling methods used in the analysis of shell deposits. We use five ecological diversity indices to examine and quantify the effects of sampling on the recovery and interpretation of molluscan remains, using material from the Peel Island Lazaret Midden, southeast Queensland, as a case study. This research demonstrates that the use of small sample sizes does indeed affect measures of richness and evenness for molluscan populations, with marked differences being recorded for the two sample sizes used in this study. Results show that while subsamples are able to detect some trends in taxonomic richness and evenness, the degree of difference present between the results from the two sample size indicates that subsamples reduce interpretive accuracy. We conclude that, in addition to determining the appropriate sampling strategy during excavation or recovery of midden deposits as highlighted by previous research, there is also a need for researchers to assess sampling practices during the analyses of molluscan assemblages. The methods employed in this study can be easily applied and offer a robust means of determining the effects and adequacy of sampling.

The Brremangurey pearl: A 2000 year old archaeological find from the coastal Kimberley, Western Australia

A small marine pearl was recovered at the Brremangurey rockshelter, on the Kimberley coast, from layers dating to approximately 2000 years ago. In an area famous for its pearls and history of cultured pearl production, public interest centred on whether the pearl was as old as the layer in which it was contained, or whether it was a recent cultured pearl that had infiltrated down from above. The near-spherical shape of the pearl hinted at a possible cultured origin. Owing to the uniqueness and historic cultural significance of this find, non-invasive analytical techniques were used to investigate whether the Brremangurey pearl was cultured or natural. Midden analysis was further used to assess the likely origin of the pearl within the stratified deposits. Analysis confirmed that the pearl is of natural origin and a dense midden lens of Pinctada albina shells is its likely origin.

Limpet shells as unmodified tools in Pleistocene Southeast Asia: an experimental approach to assessing fracture and modification

Pleistocene tools manufactured in shell are rarely identified. This may in part be due to the complexity of shell as a raw material and associated challenges in recognising and interpreting shell modification. A series of unusually-shaped Scutellastra flexuosa limpets from c. 30,000 year old deposits in Golo Cave, eastern Indonesia were identified as putatively modified during midden analysis. A pilot programme of investigations into the microstructure and natural fracture patterns of this species, coupled with a series of use-wear experiments, demonstrates that some S. flexuosa shells were used as scrapers. The shells were used in unmodified form and were ‘repurposed’ after having been gathered for subsistence purposes. Taken together with other forms of early shell-working already reported for Golo Cave, the identification of these new unmodified shell tools expands the corpus of shell tool use at the site and presents a picture of diversity and complexity not seen in the associated lithic assemblage.

PREHISTORIC SUBSISTENCE PATTERNS IN THE NORTHERN MARQUESAS ISLANDS, FRENCH POLYNESIA1

Faunal and floral material from seven excavated sites on Uahuka and Nuku hiva Islands was quantitatively analyzed, in order to provide an outline of adaptations in the Marquesan economic system from ca. 300 to 1800 a.d. A primary shift occurred during the Developmental Period from marine-oriented hunting and gathering techniques to terrestrially-oriented agricultural and animal husbandry practices. This shift may have been caused by a combination of demographic factors and by the over-exploitation of marine resources. A number of rapid and drastic changes in the Marquesan ecology as a result of human activity are also indicated. In 1964 and 1965, Dr. Yosihiko Sinoto and Marimari Kellum, of the B. P. Bishop Museum, excavated several archaeological sites on the southern coast of Uahuka and re-excavated at Ha'atuatua, Nuku Hiva, Marquesas Islands. This report concerns the analysis of faunal and floral material from seven of these sites (20·67 kilograms of midden). Previous stratigraphic excavation in the Marquesas had been carried out by Suggs (1961) on Nuku Hiva (including the Ha'atuatua site), and by a Kon-Tiki Museum expedition on Hivaoa (Sinoto, personal communication, 1970); results of the Hivaoa excavations have not been published. Suggs, although including economic considerations in his prehistoric sequence, did not undertake a detailed analysis of his faunal material, limiting himself to a checklist of mammals. Ottino (1972) analyzed midden material from Hanapete'o shelter on northern Hivaoa. Such is the present status of midden analysis for Marquesan archaeological sites.

Food Habits of Indian Grey Hornbill Ocyceros birostris in Sathyamangalam forest Division, Eastern Ghats, India

The foraging ecology of Indian Grey Hornbill Ocyceros birostris was studied in Sathyamangalam Forest Division, Eastern Ghats, from 2006 to 2008. Its diet in the breeding season was assessed by 720 hours of direct observations of food deliveries to 10 different nest inmates and by nest midden analysis. Observations at nest holes revealed that males visited nests an average of 16 times per day, and the food items delivered to the nest inmates (female and chicks) included both plant (63.7%) and animal matter (36.3%). Fleshy fruits of 14 species were delivered, and the animal matter was mainly insects (99%). Seeds collected from the nest middens on analysis showed the presence of 26 fruit species of 16 plant families. Food habits of this hornbill during the non-breeding season were assessed by walking along transects and observing foraging activities. Of the 3,086 feeding observations obtained, 83% were on fruits and the rest were on leaves (8.8%), insects (7.7%), and flowers (0.5%). Of the 38 fruit species eaten, Ficus spp. constituted 25.3% of the non-breeding season fruit diet. In all, fruits of 41 species of 21 families were recorded in the diet. The study revealed that both fig and non-fig species are important for the survival of the Indian Grey Hornbill in the Eastern Ghats.

Croig Cave: a Late Bronze Age ornament deposit and three millennia of fishing and foraging on the north-west coast of Mull, Scotland

Activity within caves provides an important element of the later prehistoric and historic settlement pattern of western Scotland. This contribution reports on a small-scale excavation within Croig Cave, on the coast of north-west Mull, that exposed a 1.95 m sequence of midden deposits and cave floors that date between c 1700 BC and AD 1400. Midden analysis indicated the processing of a diverse range of small fish and the collection of shellfish throughout this period, showing a high degree of continuity involving low-risk inshore fishing. At c 950 BC, a penannular copper bracelet and an amber bead were deposited within a small, shallow pit within the cave floor, suggestive of a discrete ritual episode within the cycle of otherwise potentially mundane activities. Lead isotope analysis indicated an Irish origin for the copper ore. A piece of iron slag within later midden deposits, dated to c 400 BC, along with high frequencies of wood charcoal, suggest that smithing or smelting may have occurred within the cave. High zinc levels in the historic levels of the midden c AD 1200 might indicate intensive processing of seaweed.

Late Holocene Climate Change And Human Behavioural Variability In The Coastal Wet-Dry Tropics Of Northern Australia: Evidence from a pilot study of oxygen isotopes in marine bivalve shells from archaeological sites

Previously it has been argued that midden analysis from three geographically distinct coastal regions of tropical northern Australia (Hope Inlet, Blyth River, Blue Mud Bay) demonstrates that changes through time in Aboriginal mollusc exploitation reflect broader coastal environmental transformations associated with late Holocene climatic variability (Bourke et al. 2007). It was suggested that, while a direct link between environmental change and significant cultural change in the archaeological record has yet to be demonstrated unambiguously, midden analysis has the potential to provide the as-yet missing link between changes in climate, environment and human responses over past millennia. We test this hypothesis with a preliminary sclerochronological analysis (i.e. of sequential stable isotopes of oxygen) of archaeological shell samples from all three regions. Our findings suggest the existence of variations in temperature and rainfall indicative of an increasing trend to aridity from 2000 to 500 cal. BP, consistent with previous palaeoenvironmental work across northern Australia.

Stable Isotopes from Marine Shells, Ancient Environments, and Human Subsistence on Middle Holocene Santa Rosa Island, California, USA

ABSTRACT We report the analysis of stable isotopes on a suite of marine and estuarine shellfish, along with faunal data, from a Middle Holocene red abalone midden (CA-SRI-191) on Santa Rosa Island, California. Our research suggests that people harvested red abalones, mussels, and estuarine shellfish at about 6000 cal BP. Later in time around 4300 cal BP, people relied on California mussel and sea urchin with only trace amounts of red abalone and no estuarine taxa. Analyses of stable oxygen isotopes from California mussel, red and black abalone, and Venus clam shells indicate that a significant change in sea surface temperatures (SST; ∼2°C) between the two occupations is the primary cause for this discrepancy. Differences between the isotopic values of California mussel and black and red abalone shells from the same strata also suggest that people were probably diving in fairly shallow waters for red abalone rather than obtaining them from the intertidal zone. Our research and other studies in the region suggest that environmental and cultural variables (e.g., human harvest pressure) may have worked together to cause changes in the composition of local shellfish habitats. These data demonstrate the importance of conducting stable isotope analysis on a variety of different shellfish species (e.g., rocky coast, estuarine, and other taxa) in concert with traditional midden analysis to help understand ancient environmental, biological, and cultural developments in coastal, island, and other aquatic settings.

Understanding arid environments using fossil rodent middens

American rodent middens have made a more dramatic contribution to understanding past environments and the development of ecological theory than Australian rodent middens. This relates to differences in the natural environment, the landscape histories, the scale and scientific approaches of the researchers. The comparison demonstrates: the power of synoptic perspectives; the value of thorough macrofossil identification in midden analysis and its potential advance in Australia where pollen has dominated analyses, the value of herbaria and reference collections; the potential of environmental databases; the importance of scientific history and ‘critical research mass’ and; finally, the opportunistic nature of palaeoecological research.

Weighing vs. Counting: Measurement Reliability and the California School of Midden Analysis

The California School of Midden Analysis represents a long-standing tradition of using weight, rather than minimum number of individuals (MNI), to analyze shell recovered from archaeological sites in California. This method originated at the University of California, Berkeley, in the early twentieth century and continues to the present, in spite of the advent of counting measures such as MNI and NISP (number of identified specimens) in faunal studies. We argue that MNI estimates are more reliable than weight as a measure of taxonomic abundance for most research issues being addressed with California shell data. Examples using both weight and MNI measures for shell from California coastal sites produced divergent results. This disparity shows that weight measures produce potentially misleading interpretations regarding the importance of marine habitats exploited and the diet of the site’s occupants.

The susceptibility and/or resilience of Rocky Littoral molluscs to stock depletion by the indigenous coastal people of Transkei, Southern Africa

Coastal shell middens accumulated by indigenous people in the Nqabara/Human's Rock area of Transkei were analysed to obtain information on species and size preferences. These data are compared with analyses of middens resulting from a controlled exploitation experiment within the adjacent Dwesa Nature Reserve. Preferred prey items included the brown mussel Perna perna, the abalone Haliotis spadicea, the turban shell Turbo sarmaticus and various patellid limpets. Information on the life history characteristics and habitat preferences of these species has been used to predict whether or not a given shellfish population is likely to be susceptible or resilient to stock depletion as a result of traditional gathering practices. Perna perna and Patella oculus appeared to be the species most susceptible to depletion. Despite the improverished state of exploited populations there appears to be no evidence of recruitment failure. The persistence of these stocks is probably dependent on reproductive output from exploited populations and on larval immigration from adjacent refuge populations. Provided there is no change in gathering methodology, adequate replenishment of these stocks should be maintained.

Comparison of pollen and macrofossil based reconstructions of Late Quaternary vegetation in western North America

In western North America, vegetation reconstructions based on separate palynological and packrat ( Neotoma spp.) midden studies can be compared to explore the strengths and weaknesses of each technique. Agreement between interpretations based on the different data appears to decrease with increasing distance from the pollen site. Likely sources of disagreement can be found in both the pollen and plant macrofossil studies. For pollen-based interpretations, these include the association of fossil pollen spectra with modern vegetation types and assumptions regarding the nature of vegetation zonation during the last glacial age. Factors in midden analysis that contribute to disagreement include the restriction of macrofossil data to rocky habitats and its sparse geographic coverage. Along with providing novel tests of palynological reconstructions, balanced comparisons of plant macrofossil and pollen data allow greater understanding of interpretive factors affecting our view of Late Quaternary vegetation.

Caves as sources of biotic remains in arid western North America

Caves have been a valuable source of paleoenvironmental information since the eighteenth century. In arid portions of western North America, caves have replaced small lakes as the primary source of biotic remains of Quaternary age. Packrat middens, dung of extinct animals, pollen, and archeological artifacts are excellently preserved. Aridity of the sediment, which is influenced by the cave's topographic position, internal morphology, and the regional climate, is the primary cause of good preservation. For stratigraphic pollen analysis, the best sites are those without internal moisture sources and without extensive bioturbation. Pollen samples should be taken near the center of the chamber, where eolian deposition is most rapid. Pollen concentrations in cave sediment are lower (2000–355,000 grains g −1) than in lake sediment, and pollen percentages in cave sediment differ from those in packrat middens due to additional transport mechanisms (on plant tissue and on the packrats themselves) for middens. Pollen diagrams for Bechan Cave, Utah, and Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona are presented as examples of cave sediment and packrat midden analysis.

A comparative midden analysis of a household and inn in St. Mary’s City, Maryland

This paper investigates the nature of functional variation as reflected on an intra-site level. Although a site generally has one “function,” most sites contain material evidence of numerous activities occurring at different times and places among different groups of people. Distributions and associations of archaeological materials are analyzed using data derived from the St. John’s site, an early 17th century tobacco plantation which later served as an inn, adjacent to St. Mary’s City. Variation between the Household and the Inn phases of occupation is described, and variation in the locations of activities at the site is demonstrated. However, differences between the Household and Inn occupations appear more subtle and may be due to a number of factors as well as functional variation. The analysis demonstrates the need for more studies of a similar type in order to address differences in function and differences among site occupants.

The view from the midden: An analysis of midden distribution and composition at the van sweringen site, St. Mary’s City, Maryland

Most intrasite spatial studies in historical archaeology have focused on the horizontal distributions of artifacts with only minimal attention given to the associations of materials found in midden contexts. In this paper the distribution and composition of plowed midden deposits from the van Sweringen site, a late 17th and early 18th century dwelling in St. Mary’s City, are investigated. Temporal changes in disposal patterns and midden composition, spatial variation among midden deposits, and the relationships between midden content and building function are presented. These findings demonstrate the potential of midden analysis and the importance of plow zone contexts for site interpretation.

Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Radiocarbon Ages on Rodent Middens from the Southwestern United States

The analysis of rodent middens, principally deposited by packrats (Neotoma sp), has rapidly become the most important paleoecologic and paleoclimatologic tool in the southwestern United States. The recent discovery of rodent middens created by stick-nest rats (Leporillus sp) and rock wallabies (Petrogale sp) in Australia (Green et al, 1983; P S Martin, oral commun, 1984) and by dassie rats (Petromus typicus) in South Africa (L Scott, oral commun, 1984) portends the use of midden analysis in arid regions worldwide. Several recent reviews of southwestern paleoecology (eg, Spaulding et al, 1983) rely heavily on rodent middens for ecologic and climatic reconstructions.

Digging for Clams: Shell Midden Analysis in New England

Analysis of shellfish and other faunal remains from coastal middens is a powerful tool for archaeologists studying a wide range of problems. Results of analysis of four prehistoric middens excavated on Potowomut Neck, Warwick, Rhode Island are discussed. The recovered data are used in comparing the properties and contents of each midden in order to identify distinct activities and interpret seasonality of settlement. It is demonstrated that these middens were largely specialized shellfish processing stations utilized on a seasonal basis, although other activities were also recognized. Examination of one midden suggests that the stratification of shellfish was related to the development of the nearby Potowomut River estuary. Results of shell midden analysis in general, however, provide only a partial picture of an entire subsistence-settlement system and therefore should be integrated with information from other site types both within and outside the coastal zone.