Mid-infrared Emission Spectra Research Articles

Stratospheric-trace-gas-profile retrievals from balloon-borne limb imaging of mid-infrared emission spectra

Abstract. The Limb Imaging Fourier Transform Spectrometer Experiment (LIFE) instrument is a balloon-borne prototype of a satellite instrument designed to take vertical images of atmospheric limb emission spectra in the 700–1400 cm−1 wavenumber range from the upper-troposphere–lower-stratosphere (UTLS) altitude region of the atmosphere. The prototype builds on the success of past and existing instruments while reducing the complexity of the imaging design. This paper details the results of a demonstration flight on a stabilized stratospheric balloon gondola from Timmins, Canada, in August 2019. Retrievals of vertical trace gas profiles for the important greenhouse gases H2O, O3, CH4, and N2O, as well as HNO3, are performed using an optimal estimation approach and the SASKTRAN radiative transfer model. The retrieved profiles are compared to approximately coincident observations made by the Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment Fourier Transform Spectrometer (ACE-FTS) solar occultation and Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) instruments. An evaluation of the LIFE measurements is performed, and areas of improvement are identified. This work increases the overall technical readiness of the approach for future balloon, aircraft, and space applications.

Mid-infrared emission properties of erbium-doped fluorite-type crystals

We report on a comparative study of the spectroscopic properties and mid-infrared laser performance of five 5 at.% Er3+-doped fluorite-type crystals MF2, including parent compounds CaF2, SrF2, BaF2, and solid-solution (“mixed”) ones (Ca,Sr)F2 and (Sr,Ba)F2. In the M = Ca → Sr → Ba series, the host matrix phonon energy decreases, the absorption and mid-infrared emission spectra of Er3+ become narrower and more structured, and the luminescence lifetimes of the 4I11/2 and 4I13/2 Er3+ manifolds increase. The Er3+ transition probabilities were calculated using the Judd-Ofelt theory. In the “mixed” compounds, the Er3+ ions tend to reside in the larger / heavier cation environment. The low-temperature (12 K) spectroscopy evidences the presence of a single type of clusters at this doping level; the crystal-field splitting for Er3+ ions in clusters was determined. Continuous-wave low-threshold laser operation at ∼2.8 µm (the 4I11/2 → 4I13/2 transition) was achieved with all five Er3+:MF2 crystals. The maximum achieved laser slope efficiency was 37.9% (Er3+:CaF2), 23.5% (Er3+:SrF2) and 17.2% (Er3+:BaF2).

Earth as an Exoplanet. II. Earth’s Time-variable Thermal Emission and Its Atmospheric Seasonality of Bioindicators

We assess the dependence of Earth’s disk-integrated mid-infrared thermal emission spectrum on observation geometries and investigate which and how spectral features are impacted by seasonality on Earth. We compiled an exclusive data set containing 2690 disk-integrated thermal emission spectra for four different full-disk observing geometries (North and South Pole-centered and Africa and Pacific-centered equatorial views) over four consecutive years. The spectra were derived from 2378 spectral channels in the wavelength range from 3.75–15.4 μm (nominal resolution ≈1200) and were recorded by the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder on board the Aqua satellite. We learned that there is significant seasonal variability in Earth’s thermal emission spectrum, and the strength of spectral features of bioindicators, such as N2O, CH4, O3, and CO2 depends strongly on both season and viewing geometry. In addition, we found a strong spectral degeneracy with respect to the latter two indicating that multi-epoch measurements and time-dependent signals may be required in order to fully characterize planetary environments. Even for Earth and especially for equatorial views, the variations in flux and strength of absorption features in the disk-integrated data are small and typically ≤ 10%. Disentangling these variations from the noise in future exoplanet observations will be a challenge. However, irrespectively of when the planet will be measured (i.e., day or night or season) the results from mid-infrared observations will remain the same to the zeroth order, which is an advantage over reflected light observations.

Visible and mid-infrared spectral features of Dy3+: SrF2 and Dy3+/Y3+: SrF2 crystals

In this work, Dy3+: SrF2 and Dy3+/Y3+: SrF2 crystals have been grown successfully by the Bridgman-Stockbarger method, and their absorption spectra, visible and mid-infrared (MIR) emission spectra, as well as fluorescence decay curves were analyzed. The advantages of co-doping Y3+ ions on the yellow and MIR emissions of Dy3+ ions were investigated. The intensity of yellow emission in the doubly-doped crystal is ∼ 4 times stronger than that of the singly-doped crystal. The absorption cross-section (0.782 × 10−21 cm2) at 452 nm and emission cross-section (1.156 × 10−21cm2) at 573 nm of Dy3+/Y3+: SrF2 crystal is higher than that of Dy3+: SrF2 crystal related values. Also, compared to Dy3+: SrF2 crystal, the emission cross-section (3.55 × 10−21 cm2) at 2880 nm and fluorescence decay time (1.062 ms) of Dy3+/Y3+: SrF2 crystal are found to be higher. When co-doped Y3+ ions, the distance between Dy3+ ions increased leading to the reduction of cross-relaxation and resonant energy transfer probabilities while enhancing the intensities of yellow and MIR emissions. From all the optical results, it can be inferred that Dy3+: SrF2 and Dy3+/Y3+: SrF2 crystals are potential materials to simultaneously realize yellow and MIR lasing action.

Study of vibrational spectra of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with phenyl side group

Computational study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with phenyl side group substituted at different positions is reported. The infrared spectral variations due to the position of phenyl substitution, ionization state and the size of the molecules are discussed and possible contribution of phenyl-PAHs to the mid-infrared emission features from astrophysical objects is analysed. Structurally phenyl group substitution at 2nd position gives more stable species compared to substitution at other positions. Phenyl-PAHs exhibit new aromatic bands near 695 and 741 cm−1 (14.4 and 13.5μm), due to contribution from quintet CH wag, that compare well with minor features at 14.2 and 13.5μm observed in several astrophysical objects. Just as in plain PAHs, the C–C stretch vibrational modes (∼1600 cm−1) have negligible intensity in neutrals, but the cations of all phenyl-PAHs exhibit significantly strong phenyl group C–C stretch peak close to class B type 6.2μm astrophysical band. In 2-phenylpyrene, it is the neutral molecule that exhibits this strong feature in the 6.2μm range along with other features that match with sub-features at 6.66 and 6.9μm, observed in astronomical spectra of some late type objects. The substitution of phenyl side group at solo position shifts the C–C stretch mode of parent PAH close to the region of 6.2μm astrophysical band. The results indicate possibility of phenyl-PAHs in space and the bottom-up formation of medium sized compact PAHs with phenyl side group in carbon rich cool circumstellar shells. Phenyl-PAHs need to be considered in modelling mid-infrared emission spectra of various astrophysical objects.

Laboratory IR spectroscopy of protonated hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene and dicoronylene

The mid-infrared emission spectra of a large variety of astronomical objects are dominated by the aromatic infrared bands (AIBs), which are now widely accepted to originate from gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). It is believed that the astrophysically most relevant molecules are at least 40–50 carbon atoms in size. Still, the large majority of laboratory experiments have been performed on smaller PAHs, mainly for reasons of experimental limitations and availability. Here, we show that combination of atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) with a direct insertion probe (DIP) inlet gives efficient access to larger, ionic PAHs for action spectroscopy studies. We present the gaseous IR spectra of two astrophysically relevant large PAHs, hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene (C42H19+) and dicoronylene (C48H21+) in their protonated form. Compared to their radical cation analogs, the protonated species have a lower dissociation threshold as they can expel a neutral hydrogen radical leaving behind the resonance-stabilized radical cation; provided that the mass spectrometer can resolve precursor and product ions at one amu difference, this generates good quality spectra under multiple-photon dissociation conditions. Quantum-chemical computations at the density functional level are used to support experiments. Despite the apparent similarity of different protonation isomers, their IR spectra are predicted to be remarkably distinct. This facilitates a straightforward identification of the isomers formed experimentally. For both species studied, protonation occurs on the peripheral CH moiety in the ’bay region’ of the molecules. We compare the spectra of the protonated species with those of their radical cation analogs reported previously and briefly discuss the astrophysical relevance.

Probing the size and charge of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

ABSTRACT We present a new method to accurately describe the ionization fraction and the size distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) within astrophysical sources. To this purpose, we have computed the mid-infrared emission spectra of 308 PAH molecules of varying sizes, symmetries, and compactness, generated in a range of radiation fields. We show that the intensity ratio of the solo CH out-of-plane bending mode in PAH cations and anions (referred to as the ‘11.0’ μm band, falling in the 11.0–11.3 μm region for cations and anions) to their 3.3 μm emission scales with PAH size, similarly to the scaling of the 11.2/3.3 ratio with the number of carbon atoms (NC) for neutral molecules. Among the different PAH emission bands, it is the 3.3 μm band intensity that has the strongest correlation with NC, and drives the reported PAH intensity ratio correlations with NC for both neutral and ionized PAHs. The 6.2/7.7 intensity ratio, previously adopted to track PAH size, shows no evident scaling with NC in our large sample. We define a new diagnostic grid space to probe PAH charge and size, using the (11.2 + 11.0)/7.7 and (11.2 + 11.0)/3.3 PAH intensity ratios, respectively. We demonstrate the application of the (11.2 + 11.0)/7.7–(11.2 + 11.0)/3.3 diagnostic grid for galaxies M82 and NGC 253, for the planetary nebula NGC 7027, and the reflection nebulae NGC 2023 and NGC 7023. Finally, we provide quantitative relations for PAH size determination depending on the ionization fraction of the PAHs and the radiation field they are exposed to.

Measuring the D/H Ratios of Exoplanets and Brown Dwarfs

Abstract The relative abundance of deuterium and hydrogen is a potent tracer of planet formation and evolution. Jupiter and Saturn have protosolar atmospheric D/H ratios, a relic of substantial gas accretion from the nebula, while the atmospheres of Neptune and Uranus are enhanced in D by accretion of ices into their envelopes. For terrestrial planets, D/H ratios are used to determine the mechanisms of volatile delivery and subsequent atmosphere loss over the lifetime of the planet. Planets and brown dwarfs more massive than ∼13 M J quickly fuse their initial D reservoir. Here, we simulate spectra for giant exoplanets and brown dwarfs (2 M Neptune to ∼10 M Jupiter) from T eff = 200–1800 K including both CH3D and HDO to determine the observability of these dominant deuterium isotopologues in mid-infrared thermal emission spectra. Colder objects have stronger molecular features in their spectra, due to the temperature dependence of molecular cross sections. CH3D is easier to observe than HDO at all temperatures considered, due to the strength of its absorption bands and locations of features at wavelengths with few other strong absorption features. We predict that for nearby cool brown dwarfs, the CH3D abundance can be measured at high signal to noise with the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST); for objects from 200 to 800 K closer than 10 pc, a protosolar D/H ratio would be readily observable in 2.5 hr. Moderately young Jupiter-mass planets (100–300 Myr) and young Neptunes (10 Myr) may be discovered with JWST and provide the best targets for detecting deuterium on an exoplanet in the coming decade. Future telescope designs should consider the importance of isotopes for understanding the formation and evolution of planetary atmospheres.

Increasing ZnF2 content enhancing the near- and mid-infrared emission in Er3+/Yb3+ codoped oxyfluorotellurite glasses with decreased hydroxyl

A series of Er3+/Yb3+ codoped 50TeO2-(47.5-x)PbF2-xZnF2-1.5YbF3-1ErF3 (x = 0, 10, 20, 30, 47.5) oxyfluorotellurite glasses were prepared by melt-quenching method. With the increasing of ZnF2 content, the near- and mid-infrared emission from 4I13/2 → 4I15/2 (1530 nm) and 4I11/2 → 4I13/2 (2700 nm) were enhanced. The absorption, Fourier transmittance infrared spectra (FTIR), X-ray diffraction, Raman spectra, the near- and mid-infrared emission spectra were measured, along with the Judd-Ofelt intensity parameters, stimulated absorption and emission cross-sections were calculated to evaluate the effects of ZnF2 content on the properties of the infrared emission spectra. The results of FTIR indicate the increase of ZnF2 content reduces the content of hydroxyl groups substantially and the absorption coefficient of OH− of the as-prepared glasses around 3 μm decreased dramatically, which is favor of the enhancement of the near- and mid-infrared luminescence. Our results indicate the glass 50TeO2-47.5ZnF2-1.5YbF3-1ErF3 with low absorption coefficient of OH− (0.72 cm−1), large emission cross section (0.692 and 0.528 × 10−20 cm2) for 4I13/2 → 4I15/2 and 4I11/2 → 4I13/2 transitions would be a promising material for the near- and mid-infrared amplifier.

Spectroscopic analyses and laser properties simulation of Er/Yb, Er/Nd, Er/Dy: BaLaGa3O7 crystals

The Er3+/Yb3+, Er3+/Nd3+ and Er3+/Dy3+ co-doped BaLaGa3O7 crystals were grown by the Czochralski method. The absorption spectra, up-conversion emission spectra, near-infrared and mid-infrared emission spectra, as well as the fluorescence decay curves of them were measured at room temperature. Detailed spectroscopic analyses were carried out and the spectral parameters of them were compared. Furthermore, the energy transfer processes among Er3+-Yb3+, Er3+-Nd3+ and Er3+-Dy3+ were investigated and the rate-equation theory models were built and discussed. The results demonstrate that Er/Nd: BaLaGa3O7 crystal is a best candidate for obtainment of ~2.7 µm laser among the three doping kinds, since the introduction of Nd3+ not only increases the absorption efficiency of pump energy, but also inhibits the self-termination bottleneck effect, which are both beneficial to the output of the mid-infrared ~2.7 µm laser.

Plasmonic mid-infrared third harmonic generation in germanium nanoantennas

We demonstrate third harmonic generation in plasmonic antennas consisting of highly doped germanium grown on silicon substrates and designed to be resonant in the mid-infrared frequency range that is inaccessible with conventional nonlinear plasmonic materials. Owing to the near-field enhancement, the result is an ultrafast, subdiffraction, coherent light source with a wavelength tunable between 3 and 5 µm, and ideally overlapping with the fingerprint region of molecular vibrations. To observe the nonlinearity in this challenging spectral window, a high-power femtosecond laser system equipped with parametric frequency conversion in combination with an all-reflective confocal microscope setup is employed. We demonstrate spatially resolved maps of the linear scattering cross section and the nonlinear emission of single isolated antenna structures. A clear third-order power dependence as well as mid-infrared emission spectra prove the nonlinear nature of the light emission. Simulations support the observed resonance length of the double-rod antenna and demonstrate that the field enhancement inside the antenna material is responsible for the nonlinear frequency mixing.

Atmospheric Characterization of Directly Imaged Exoplanets with JWST/MIRI

Abstract The Mid-Infrared instrument (MIRI) on board the James Webb Space Telescope will perform the first ever characterization of young giant exoplanets observed by direct imaging in the 5–28 μm spectral range. This wavelength range is key for both determining the bolometric luminosity of the cool known exoplanets and for accessing the strongest ammonia bands. In conjunction with shorter wavelength observations, MIRI will enable a more accurate characterization of the exoplanetary atmospheric properties. Here we consider a subsample of the currently known exoplanets detected by direct imaging, and we discuss their detectability with MIRI, either using the coronagraphic or the spectroscopic modes. By using the Exo-REM atmosphere model, we calculate the mid-infrared emission spectra of 14 exoplanets, and we simulate MIRI coronagraphic or spectroscopic observations. Specifically, we analyze four coronagraphic observational setups, which depend on (i) the target-star and reference-star offset (0, 3, 14 mas), (ii) the wavefront-error (130, 204 nm root mean square), and (iii) the telescope jitter amplitude (1.6, 7 mas). We then determine the signal-to-noise and integration time values for the coronagraphic targets whose planet-to-star contrasts range from 3.9 to 10.1 mag. We conclude that all the MIRI targets should be observable with different degrees of difficulty, which depends on the final in-flight instrument performances. Furthermore, we test for detection of ammonia in the atmosphere of the coolest targets. Finally, we present the case of HR 8799 b to discuss what MIRI observations can bring to the knowledge of a planetary atmosphere, either alone or in combination with shorter wavelength observations.

Fabrication and mid-infrared property of Er:CaF2 transparent ceramics

High doped Er:CaF2 transparent ceramics (up to 10.0 at.%) were fabricated by hot pressing nanopowders which were synthesized by co-precipitation method. The composition and micrographs of the powders were characterized. The mid-infrared emission spectra and lifetimes of the 4I13/2 energy level of Er:CaF2 transparent ceramics were investigated for the first time. The mechanisms of energy transfer processes based on the emission spectra of different wavelengths were discussed. The enhanced 2.7 μm emission intensity and the reductions of near-infrared fluorescence lifetimes were observed indicating that the high concentrations of Er3+ ions are beneficial to overcome the self-termination effect and realize 2.7 μm laser output. It can be seen from these results that high concentrations Er-doped CaF2 transparent ceramics can be considered as promising host materials for the applications of mid-infrared lasers.

Preparation and mid-infrared 2.7 µm luminescence property of high content Er3+-doped (Y0.9La0.1)2O3 transparent ceramics pumped at 980 nm

High content Er3+ doped (Y0.9La0.1)2O3 transparent ceramics have been prepared by conventional ceramic process. Absorption spectra, mid-infrared, up-conversion and near-infrared emission spectra of Er3+ pumped at 980nm have been investigated. The mechanisms of energy transfer processes have been discussed. Large values of Judd–Ofelt parameter Ω2 (5.73 × 10–20cm2) and spectral quality factor X (3.71) have been obtained. The greatly enhanced green up-conversion emission in the high Er3+ doped sample is considered important for the applications in up-converters. The much enhanced mid-infrared 2.7µm and up-conversion emissions, as well as the depressed near-infrared 1.5µm emission demonstrate the efficient population inversion of Er3+:4I11/2 → 4I13/2 in high Er3+-doped ceramics for the 2.7µm emission. These results suggest that high Er3+-doped (Y0.9La0.1)2O3 transparent ceramics are promising host materials for the applications of mid-infrared lasers and infrared-to-visible up-converters.

Optical Properties of Non-stoichiometric Amorphous Silicates with Application to Circumstellar Dust Extinction

Abstract We determine the optical constants of non-stoichiometric amorphous magnesium-iron silicates and demonstrate that they can well reproduce the observed mid-infrared emission spectra of evolved stars. Stoichiometric and non-stoichiometric amorphous magnesium-iron silicate films are fabricated by pulsed laser deposition. Transmittance and ellipsometry measurements are performed in the wavelength range between 2 and 200 μm and 1.7 and 33 μm, respectively. Optical constants are derived from transmittance and ellipsometric Ψ and Δ spectra by means of oscillator models. These newly obtained optical constants are applied in radiative transfer models for examining reproducibility of the observed spectral features of circumstellar dust shells around supergiants. The spectra of four selected supergiants are dominated by amorphous silicate dust emission in the wavelength range between 9 and . To obtain a good fit to the observed spectra, we take into account amorphous corundum and metallic iron particles as additional dust components to the model calculations to rationalize the dust emission at . For each of the objects, a set of model parameters (dust mass and condensation temperature) is derived by an automated optimization procedure that reproduces the observation well. Consequently, our model spectra using new optical data reveal that the silicate bands at ∼10 and depend on the magnesium and iron ratio in the silicate system, and that a good fit requires a significant iron content of the amorphous silicate dust component to reproduce the observed peak positions and shape of the silicate bands.

Extended wavelength mid-infrared photoluminescence from type-I InAsN and InGaAsN dilute nitride quantum wells grown on InP

Extended wavelength photoluminescence emission within the technologically important 2–5 μm spectral range has been demonstrated from InAs1−xNx and In1−yGayAs1−xNx type I quantum wells grown onto InP. Samples containing N ∼ 1% and 2% exhibited 4 K photoluminescence emission at 2.0 and 2.7 μm, respectively. The emission wavelength was extended out to 2.9 μm (3.3 μm at 300 K) using a metamorphic buffer layer to accommodate the lattice mismatch. The quantum wells were grown by molecular beam epitaxy and found to be of a high structural perfection as evidenced in the high resolution x-ray diffraction measurements. The photoluminescence was more intense from the quantum wells grown on the metamorphic buffer layer and persisted up to room temperature. The mid-infrared emission spectra were analysed, and the observed transitions were found to be in good agreement with the calculated emission energies.

Mid-infrared emission and Raman spectra analysis of Er(3+)-doped oxyfluorotellurite glasses.

This paper reports on the spectroscopic and structural properties in Er(3+)-doped oxyfluorotellurite glasses. The compositional variation accounts for the evolutions of Raman spectra, Judd-Ofelt parameters, radiative properties, and fluorescent emission. It is found that, when maximum phonon energy changes slightly, phonon density plays a crucial role in quenching the 2.7 μm emission generated by the Er(3+):(4)I11/2→(4)I13/2 transition. The comparative low phonon density contributes strong 2.7 μm emission intensity. The high branching ratio (18.63%) and large emission cross section (0.95×10(-20) cm(2)) demonstrate that oxyfluorotellurite glass contained with 50 mol.% TeO2 has potential application in the mid-infrared region laser.

2.9μm emission properties and energy transfer mechanism in Dy3+/Tm3+-codoped tellurite glass

Abstract Dy 3+ and Dy 3+ /Tm 3+ -codoped tellurite–zinc glasses have been synthesized and studied by absorption and emission spectra. The Judd–Ofelt intensity parameters, energy transfer microparameters and efficiency have been determined and discussed. Intense 2.9 μm emission in Dy 3+ /Tm 3+ -codoped zinc–tellurite glasses was achieved under 800 nm laser diode excitation that confirms effective energy transfer from Tm 3+ to Dy 3+ ions. Possible energy transfer mechanism has been discussed based on the near- and mid-infrared emission spectra and the energy transfer microparameters. These results indicate that Dy 3+ /Tm 3+ -codoped tellurite–zinc glasses can be a potential medium for mid-infrared laser.

Enhanced 2.7 μm mid-infrared emission and energy transfer mechanism in Er3+/Nd3+ codoped tellurite glass

Nd3+ was introduced into Er3+ doped tellurite glass with composition of TeO2Nb2O5ZnONa2O to improve the 2.7μm band fluorescence upon the excitation of 800nm LD. The DSC curve and Raman spectrum were measured to characterize the thermal stability and vibration nature of glass host. The absorption spectra, visible, near- and mid-infrared fluorescence emission spectra were measured to evaluate the effects of Nd3+ introduction on the spectroscopic properties especially the 2.7μm band fluorescence of Er3+. It is shown that the prepared tellurite glass exhibits a large glass transition temperature and no obvious crystallization peak is observed in the measured temperature range of 200–550°C. Moreover, the introduction of Nd3+ significantly improves the 2.7μm band fluorescence intensity through joint energy transfer processes between the relevant excited levels of Er3+ and Nd3+, and the energy transfer mechanisms are further investigated in detail by calculating energy transfer micro-parameters and efficiency. The excellent thermal stability and strong 2.7μm fluorescence emission aroused by adopting codoping scheme indicate that the prepared Er3+/Nd3+ codoped tellurite glass is a potential glass medium applied for the 2.7μm mid-infrared band lasers.

The prevalence of dust on the exoplanet HD 189733b from Hubble and Spitzer observations

The hot Jupiter HD189733b is the most extensively observed exoplanet. Its atmosphere has been detected and characterised in transmission and eclipse spectroscopy, and its phase curve measured at several wavelengths. This paper brings together results of our campaign to obtain the complete transmission spectrum of the atmosphere of this planet from UV to IR with HST, using STIS, ACS and WFC3. We provide a new tabulation of the transmission spectrum across the entire visible and IR range. The radius ratio in each wavelength band was rederived to ensure a consistent treatment of the bulk transit parameters and stellar limb-darkening. Special care was taken to correct for, and derive realistic estimates of the uncertainties due to, both occulted and unocculted star spots. The combined spectrum is very different from the predictions of cloud-free models: it is dominated by Rayleigh scattering over the whole visible and near infrared range, the only detected features being narrow Na and K lines. We interpret this as the signature of a haze of condensate grains extending over at least 5 scale heights. We show that a dust-dominated atmosphere could also explain several puzzling features of the emission spectrum and phase curves, including the large amplitude of the phase curve at 3.6um, the small hot-spot longitude shift and the hot mid-infrared emission spectrum. We discuss possible compositions and derive some first-order estimates for the properties of the putative condensate haze/clouds. We finish by speculating that the dichotomy between the two observationally defined classes of hot Jupiter atmospheres, of which HD189733b and HD209458b are the prototypes, might not be whether they possess a temperature inversion, but whether they are clear or dusty. We also consider the possibility of a continuum of cloud properties between hot Jupiters, young Jupiters and L-type brown dwarfs.