mid-Edo Period Research Articles

Revealing the knowledge of uekiya in Kyoto during the 18th century regarding garden tree management from “Niwaki chōhōki”

The “Niwaki chōhōki” is a technical book on garden plant nursing written by the Kyoto uekiya (gardener/plant dealer) Heisuke in the mid-Edo period. This study aims to reveal the knowledge described in this book and identify planting trends from the plant species it refers to. The “Niwaki chōhōki” is thought to have been published in the first half of the 18th century. Since the book contains several work songs meant to be shared with others, it is likely that the knowledge contained in the book belongs not to an individual, but rather to a group of uekiya. The descriptions of grafting techniques show that some techniques later were discontinued and remain forgotten today. Comparison with a horticultural book published in Edo at the end of the 17th century, “Kadan jikinshō,” revealed that there was a difference in plant nursing techniques between Edo and Kyoto. The “Niwaki chōhōki” mentions pine candling, one of the most important aspects of garden fostering in Kyoto today, which is not mentioned in the “Kadan jikinshō.” Thus, it was revealed that “Niwaki chōhōki” is a highly valuable historical document that demonstrates the knowledge and technique of Kyoto uekiya in the 18th century and the plant species they handled.

The sources and spread of Zhong Jing Quan Shu related to Zhang Qingzi

The original version and title of Zhong Jing Quan Shu referred to the collection of four books - Shang Han Lun, Zhu Jie Shang Han Lun, Shang Han Lei Zheng and Jin Gui Yao Lue Fang Lun, published by Zhao Kaimei in the Ming Dynasty. Then, Zhang Qingzi Shang Han Lun was written by Zhang Qingzi. After that, a Japanese scholar compiled a new collection based on Zhong Jing Quan Shu held in the Cabinet Library in Japan consisting of three books - Shang Han Lei Zheng, JinGui Yao Lue Fang Lun and Zhang Qingzi Shang Han Lun. The preface and content in this collection was adjusted for some practical purposes and was published in the second year of Manji in Japan (1659). This book, Zhang Qingzi Shang Han Lun was based on Shang Han Lun from the early and mid-Edo period of Japan. It was then returned to China in the Guangxu period of the Qing Dynasty. It was soon republished by Deng in Chengdu, with Yun Qi Zhang Jue Lu and Shang Han Ming Li Lun, added as a collection of five books with the same name Zhang Zi Qing Shang Han Lun, being popular in the late Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China. This book was understood to be from Zhong Jing Quan Shu published by Zhao Kaimei during this period. These two books were distinguished from each other when Shang Han Lun published in the Song Dynasty, drew people's attention. However, Zhang Qingzi Shang Han Lun was still believed valuable for both clinical and literature studies.

Lost and Found: Documentary Evidence and Scientific Examination of a Mid-Eighteenth Century Japanese Urushi Box

ABSTRACT This paper discusses a Japanese urushi box in the collection of the Swedish Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, inventory number TEMP-0030. It documents a study that included scientific analyses by five different processes: sectional optical microscopy (OM/POL), wood taxonomy (WT), pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), X−ray fluorescence microscopy (XRF), and radiocarbon dating (14C). To a lesser degree, the investigation also included an examination of the inscribed information on a paper label. The scientific results show that the box substrate is hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa Engl.), assembled with a proteinaceous glue. A cloth made from ramie fibres (Boehmeria nivea) covers the wood body. The main constituent in the coating is urushiol, derived from Toxicodendron vernicifluum trees. The black appearance on the exterior faces is due to a pigment of soot. The makie and nashiji decorations, on both exterior and interior faces, are composed of brass, silver, and gold, in flakes and powders. Radiocarbon dating suggests the time of manufacture as 1728–1764 CE, or the mid-Edo period. The information on the paper label suggests 1745 CE and the Zohiko, Kyoto, as the time and place of manufacture. Indirectly, this study emphasises the potential of these analytical techniques and a forensic approach in learning about other ‘lost and found’ objects.

The Manuscript Lineage of the <i>Sho-ajari shingon mikkyō burui sōroku</i>

The author posits five stages in the formative process of the Sho-ajari shingon mikkyō burui sōroku 諸阿闍梨真言密教部類惣録 (T. 2176) based on date and content. They are (1) Sho-ajari shingon mikkyō burui sōroku 諸阿闍梨真言密教部類惣録 edited by Annen 安然 in sixteen categories; (2) Sho-ajari shingon mikkyō burui sōroku 諸阿闍梨真言密教部類惣録edited by Annen in twenty categories; (3) manuscript copies from the late Heian to the early Edo periods; (4) the mid-Edo period printed edition; and (5) the Taishō edition published in 1928. After comparing eight extant manuscripts belonging to category (3), it was learned that they each have some degree of collations and enlargements. This paper makes use of three passages to examine the textual lineages of these manuscripts.

The evolution of sushi and the power of vinegar

Sushi did not become the staple food we eat today, with its vinegared rice and toppings eaten together known as hayazushi (fast sushi), until the mid-Edo period. Prior to this, sushi was usually fermented using lactic acid fermentation. As fermented sushi evolved from honnare (fully fermented sushi), to namanare (partially fermented sushi), to kairyō namanare (improved partially fermented sushi), the fermentation period became shorter. From namanare onwards, fermented sushi went from being simply preserved fish to a dish in which fish and rice are eaten together. Sushi then evolved into hayazushi, and in the late-Edo period, nigirizushi (hand-pressed sushi) was invented in the city of Edo (Tokyo). One of the things that supported the development of nigirizushi culture was red vinegar (aka-su) developed in Handa Bishu (located in modern day Aichi). Red vinegar gets its name from its red color and is made from aged sake lees.

RECTANGULAR CROSS SECTION COLUMN IN VERNACULAR HOUSES OF EDO PERIOD

This paper analyzes rectangular columns, rectangular cross section columns, in “Minka”, vernacular houses. The subject to research is rectangular columns in 227 vernacular houses designated as Important Cultural Properties. rectangular column's ratio of long side to short side in this paper is over 1.2 to 1. Three purposes in rectangular column are revealed as below. First main purpose is aim of design which the carpenters pretended to be thick column while conserving materials. Rectangular columns are distributed in “Doma”, which is earth floored area, “Hiroma”, which is living room, beside entrance of “Doma”, or in outside appearance. The places which rectangular columns are distributed among vernacular houses designated as Important Cultural Properties are "Doma" (13%), "Hiroma"(5%), appearance(6%), "Zashiki"(2%), guest room. A large number of rectangular columns exist in east area of Japan and Mid-Edo period. In this case, average ratio of long side to short side is 1.28 to 1. Second purpose is low accuracy of carpenter's process. In this case, directions of rectangular columns in vernacular houses are not systematic, namely long side of rectangular columns are not all front. Third purpose is to adjust width of column to “Tatamiwari”, which is the system to adjust bays of columns to dimensions of “Tatami”, which is floor covering mat. This purpose is due to construction method mainly, however this is also due to design to pretend to be thick column. A large number of rectangular columns exist in east area of Japan and Mid-Edo period.

Quotations from the <i>Shōbōgenzō</i> in Itsudō Kanchū’s <i>Shōbōgenzō-zokugenkōgi</i>

This paper studies the religious teachings developed in the Sōtō sect from the early to mid-Edo period (17th to 18th century) through the study of the Shōbōgenzō-zokugenkōgi, the main work of Itsudō Kanchū (1684?–1760).

乙堂喚丑『正法眼蔵続絃講議』の発心観

This paper investigates the doctrinal arguments in the Sōtō school from the early to mid Edo period through the lens of the Itsudō Kanchū’s 乙堂喚丑 Shōbōgenzō zokugenkōgi 正法眼蔵続絃講議. The work is cast as a critique of Tenkei Denson’s 天桂伝尊 (1648–1735) Shōbōgenzō benchū 正法眼蔵弁註. Under the influence of Dōgen’s 道元 Bendōwa 弁道話, building on the germ of the expression “wondrous practice rooted in innate realization” (honshō myōshu 本証妙修) he investigated the Aspiration to Awakening.

일본 煎茶道 성립배경에 나타나는 문화적 현상

Chanoyu (茶の湯) and Senchadō (煎茶道) are the two pillars of Japanese tea culture and the foundations of traditional Japanese mentality and the way of life. These are Japanese traditional cultures, but also still being practiced as living cultures. Chanoyu and Senchadō have inseparable relations, since Chanoyu provided the background and eventually triggered the birth of Senchadō.
 During Edo period, many cities were flourished and wealthy Chōnin (町人, townsman ) class emerged in the cities. Chōnins had changed the original Chanoyu practices, which focused upon truth seeking and asceticism. Chanoyu had become a symbol of escalated social status of wealthy Chōnins, and Yuugei (遊藝), the way of enjoying tea as leisure, stemmed from Chanoyu.
 Chanoyu created Iemoto (家元,“Grand Master”) system and a new custom of paying the Iemotos in order to learn the way of enjoying tea from them. And a newly created custom call Hakogaki (箱書), the inscriptions written on tea cups by Iemotos to certify their value, was criticized for being too commercialized. The leaders of the tea circle started to pursue economic gains, and a growing number of people enjoyed only the formality of the tea culture. Chanoyu as a kind of leisure raised many concerned voices in and outside of the tea circle.
 Senchadō was born as an alternative of the deformed Chanoyu. Senchadō is the way of enjoying leaf tea instead of powdered green tea, which was established in the mid Edo period. Ōbaku-shū (黄檗宗), a sect of Chinese Buddhism, and elegant manners of the literary circle of Ming and Qing dynasties affected the spirit and formality of Senchadō.

Officials of the Afterworld: Ono no Takamura and the Ten Kings of Hell in the Chikurinji engi Illustrated Scrolls

Takamurayama Chikurinji engi emaki is a two-scroll emaki preserved at Chikurinji, a Shingon temple in Nyuno, Hiroshima prefecture, and dated to the Muromachi period. The first scroll of Chikurinji engi begins with the story of the founding of the temple by Gyoki; Ono no Takamura's mysterious birth; and the early stages of Takamura's life as a courtier. This paper focuses on the second of the two scrolls, which recounts the death of Takamura's father-inlaw, his tour through hell, and his encounter there with Takamura, identified as the third of the Ten Kings of Hell. In particular, the paper looks into the development of Takamura's hell-legend, as well as the juxtaposition in the second Chikurinji engi scroll of early medieval motifs of hell with the cult of the Ten Kings. My comparison of the scroll with other medieval Japanese visual and literary sources, such as setsuwa, hell paintings, and sculptures of the Ten Kings and Enma, reveals that the emaki illustrates a representation of the afterworld that is typical of images from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. keywords: Takamurayama Chikurinji engi emaki-Chikurinji-Ten Kings of Hell- Ono no Takamura-Enma-Hell Paintings (ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.) Takamurayama Chikurinji engi emaki ... (hereafter Chikurinji engi) is a two-scroll emaki preserved at Chikurinji, a Shingon temple in ..., Hiroshima prefecture, a place traditionally known as the birthplace of Ono no Takamura ?...1 The temple's main hall, which was completed in 1543, is designated today as an Important Cultural Property.2 The scrolls have been dated by scholars to the Muromachi period. A copy made in 1638 has also been preserved at Chikurinji; furthermore, the temple owns a set of three hanging scrolls dating from the mid- to late-Edo period, while a mid-Edo period copy of the text is presently in the possession of Hiroshima University. Chikurinji engi opens with the founding of the temple by ..., but much of it deals with the life of Ono no Takamura, who, according to the engi, was born mysteriously from a virgin who was a devotee of the temple. Though renowned as a courtier and scholar of the Heian period, Takamura is also famed for having been an at the Court of Enma in hell, and for having traveled freely between this world and the afterworld. In Chikurinji engi, he is identified as ..., the third of the Ten Kings of Hell who preside at the entrance of the afterworld assigning souls to one or another of the six realms of existence. This paper focuses on the second of the two Chikurinji engi scrolls in order to examine the evolution of Ono no Takamura's legend and images of hell in the late medieval period. In particular, I wish to look into the rather awkward juxtaposition of early medieval motifs with the cult of the Ten Kings as revealed in the scroll: in the earlier part, Enma ...? is presented in his court without the Ten Kings, but this is followed thereafter by an abrupt introduction of Takamura as the third official (...) with an emphasis on the Ten Kings. It is only through a close examination of the scrolls within the context of contemporary images of hell and the Ten Kings that this enigma can be explained. Chikurinji engi and the Medieval Narratives of Ono no Takamura Ono no Takamura (802-852) was a scholar, poet, and courtier of the early Heian period. He is known as the leading poet of his time, renowned particularly for his erudition in Chinese. Most interestingly, he appears in Heian- and Kamakuraperiod setsuwa ?... as an of Enma's court (Asano 1987; Matsumoto 1987; Tanaka 2002). Chikurinji engi reveals interesting developments that the Takamura legends pertaining to Enma and the Ten Kings had undergone by the late medieval period. The first Chikurinji engi scroll begins by telling of the founding of the temple by Gyoki. It then goes on to tell of the life of Ono no Takamura, beginning with his mysterious birth, his successful marriage to the daughter of the regent Ono no Yoshisuke (a. …

Invitation to the Secret Buddha of Zenkōji: Kaichō and Religious Culture in Early Modern Japan

In early modern Japan, for Buddhist temples endowed with famed Buddhas, the kaicho was a lucrative means of public fundraising. In particular, at a time when a large-scale project such as building or repairing a Main Hall required sizable funding, many temples often turned to holding kaicho events, during which lay Buddhists evinced a spectacular enthusiasm for the secret Buddhas that were on display. Through the example of Zenkoji, this article reveals that the popularity of kaicho, which was unique to Japanese Buddhist culture, was fostered as well as manipulated within traditional Japanese ideas regarding yorishiro (lodging place), saijitsu (ritual date), and marebito (visitordeity). The aura of secrecy and mystery surrounding, and inseparable from, kaicho deities was used not only for the benefit of kaicho temples but also for the benefit of kaicho visitors. KEYWORDS: fundraising-Zenkoji Triad-yorishiro (lodging place)-saijitsu (ritual date)-marebito (visitor-deity) (ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.) THE MAIN HALL (Nyorai Hall) of the Zenkoji ... Temple in Nagano, completed in 1707 and now designated a national treasure, represents the Buddhist architectural style of the mid-Edo period, with its thatched roofing composed of layers of cypress bark (hiwadabuki ...). The magnitude of the building is imposing: its T-shaped wooden bell hammer (shumoku ...) measures 24 meters long, 54 meters deep, and 30 meters high. In constructing this building, Zenkoji spent 24,577 koban gold ry. (Kobayashi 1979, 41-42).1 Given that it only held a land grant of 1,000 koku in 1707, which would yield no more than 500 koban gold ry. a year as a regular source of income, how was Zenkoji able to raise the huge amount required for building expenses? The answer lies in the kaich. ... (lit....opening of a curtain), which was conducted for five and a half years between 1701 and 1706. These kaich. exhibitions, which were known as all-around-the-country (kaikoku ...) kaich., enabled the Zenk.ji administration to generate an income of more than 23,000 koban gold ry. during this time (Kobayashi 1979, 39.40). With this money, Zenk.ji was able to rebuild its Main Hall, which had been lost to a fire in 1642 and replaced with a temporary structure in 1650 and again in 1666. Throughout the late seventeenth century, Zenk.ji made vigorous efforts to erect a new Main Hall. Prior to the major endeavor launched in 1701, in 1692. 1694 Zenk.ji officials had thrown themselves into a Santo kaich. ... (a tri-city kaich. held at Ek.in [per thousand]nu[per thousand]@ in Edo for 55 days, at Shinnyod. ... in Kyoto for 66 days, and at Tenn.ji ... in Osaka for 54 days). The Santo kaich. of 1692.1694 turned out to be quite successful, netting more than 25,000 koban gold ry.. However, despite this, the attempt to build a new Main Hall failed miserably. In 1694, Zenk.ji officials secured a site for the new hall north of the existing temporary hall, and three years later they began building it. In 1700, during construction, a massive fire broke out in the front district of the temple. It consumed almost all of the temple buildings as well as the piles of lumber that were to be used for the construction of a new Main Hall (McCallum 1994, 171). Luckily, in 1700, the newly installed leaders (Keiun ... of Daikanjin ... and Chizen ... of Daihongan ...) of ZenkOji were related to Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu ... (1658.1714), Sh.gun Tsunayoshi's right-hand man in the bakufu (Keiun was his nephew and Chizen was his daughter). Thus, they were able to secure a permit from the bakufu and to launch an all-around-the- country kaich. in 1701.2 During this nationwide fundraising campaign, Keiun exercised strong leadership, and this eventually led to the successful construction of Zenk.ji's towering Main Hall. Kaich. events, which, in theory, were designed to provide people with special opportunities for worship in the context of Buddhist merit-making, were used mainly for fundraising purposes. …

Hepatoprotective bile acid ‘ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA)’Property and difference as bile acids

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is a bile acid, which is present in human bile at a low concentration of only 3% of total bile acids. It is a 7beta-hydroxy epimer of the primary bile acid chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA). UDCA is isolated from the Chinese drug 'Yutan' a powder preparation derived from the dried bile of adult bears. For centuries, Yutan has been used in the treatment of hepatobiliary disorders. In Japan, it has also been in widespread use as a folk medicine from the mid-Edo period. In Japan, not only basic studies such as isolation, crystallization, definition of the chemical structure and establishment of the synthesis of UDCA have been conducted but clinical studies have been conducted. First reports on the effects of UDCA in patients with liver diseases came from Japan as early as 1961. In the 1970s, the first prospective study of patients with gallbladder stones treated with UDCA demonstrating gallstone dissolution was reported. In late 1980s, a number of controlled trials on the use of UDCA in primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) were reported. Since then, a variety of clinical studies have shown the beneficial effect of UDCA in liver disease worldwide. To date, UDCA is utilized for the treatment of PBC for which it is the only drug approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In recent years, with the advent of molecular tools, the mechanisms of action of bile acids and UDCA have been investigated, and various bioactivities and pharmacological effects have been revealed. Based on the results of these studies, the bioactive substances in bile acids that are involved in digestive absorption may play important roles in signal transduction pathways. Furthermore, the mechanisms of action of UDCA is evidently involved. We reveal the physicochemical properties of UDCA as bile acid and overview the established pharmacological effects of UDCA from its metabolism. Furthermore, we overview the current investigations into the mechanism of action of UDCA in liver disease.

Japanese Birds in the Mid Edo Period

Japanese Birds in the Mid Edo Period

近世江戸における町人地の街区と町割りの変容に関する研究

In SHITAMACHI, 60-KEN blocks lined up orderly with houses along, when the castle town of Edo was built. This study aims to clarify how space constitution of merchants town passed through city reorganization, after MEIREKI conflagration, on the way to the end of the Edo period. It is apparent that there is a wide difference of city- reorganization methods between the center and the outskirts in the merchants town from the mid-Edo period onward.

江戸時代前期から中期にかけての浄土真宗の庵室の形成 : 肥後藩における浄土真宗の庵室に関する研究 その1

The SIN-sect of Buddhism expanded to farm villages and provinces during the first half of the Edo era A large number of SIN-sect temples were founded in both types of religions at that time However, these temples were not registered as Buddhism temples The names of unregistered religions institutions are recorded in "A book of NINCHIKUARATAMECHO" written in the year KAN-EI10 (1633) The Edo Shogunate promulgated a law in the year GENROKU 5 (1692) for promoting pre-existing structures to temple status and defining the ANSITSU (Hermit's Cell) This law was fully established with inspections even by the Higo Clan during the years BUNSEI 6 to 11 (1823〜1828) "ANSITSU" were defined as structures with a beam length of 2 5 KEN or less Buddhist images were hung inside "ANSITSU" that did not qualify as Buddhist temples

The Annual and Daily Activities of Round Haul Net Fishing Fleets in the Shimanoura Area, Nobeoka City, Miyazaki Prefecture

The purpose of this paper is to elucidate the annual and daily activity of round haul net fishing fleets. The results of the research in the Shimanoura area of Nobeoka City, Miyazaki Prefecture, are described below.The fishing industry in the Shimanoura area has flourished as a result of increase in the sardine catch through the introduction of the stick-held dip net during the mid Edo Period and the introduction of the round haul net in the early Showa Period. In recent years, the percentage of farm-raised yellowtail has increased substantially in monetary terms, and production has peaked through the use of the round haul net. While the pilchard catch has declined, the anchovy catch has increased through the use of the round haul net.Examination of the seasonal changes in fishing grounds in recent years shows fishing operations being carried out in the waters adjacent to Shimanoura from January through May, the waters off Miyazaki City in June, and the various areas of Hyuganada thereafter, making it difficult to determine a regular pattern. Conditions restricting the activities of fishing fleets include: (1) the capability constraints of the fishing boats; (2) authority constraints, such as administrative arrangements relating to fishable waters and catch weight; (3) coupling constraints, such as the presence of an offshore estuary or strait in the fishing ground, the nearness of the fishing ground, the establishment of a system for obtaining fresh sources of fish and the like and coupling constraints among fishing boats.

Controllers and Periods of Construction of Irrigation Ponds in the Nara Basin

The aim of this study is to clarify controllers and period of construction of the many irrigation ponds in the Nara-Basin. The mental reconstruction of those irrigation ponds which have been developed so far drew the following findings.1. It became clear that most of the irrigation ponds in the Nara-Basin were built during the Edo period. The period of building can be divided into two. The first period is the earlier Edo period, when an economic system placing a great importance on production of rice was established. Landlords built many irrigation ponds in their villages to increase output of rice collected as a tax. The second period was the mid-Edo period when farmers suffered from the lack of water for irrigation, caused by a drought and a tax increase ordered by the Bakufu. Many irrigation ponds were built in villages in response to the farmers' demands.2. It is the villages governed by smaller Han [provinces] that mainly built irrigation ponds in the earlier Edo period, while it is villages governed by the Bakufu or retainers of a shogun or some feudal lords that built them in the mid-Edo period. Hence we can assume that the period of the construction of irrigation ponds in the Nara-Basin depended upon who governed the villages in the Edo period and that it made a great difference in agriculture and agricultural production between villages.3. The peak of bulding irrigation ponds in Tenri-shi was the erly Edo period. Most of them were built on level ground below 60 merters msl. As for Tawaramoto-cho, the peak war in the mid-Edo period and the Meiji Era. Almost all irrigation ponds built or expanded at that time were built on level ground. There is a difference of from 50 to more than 100 years between the period of construction of irrigation ponds on level ground in Tenri-shi, located on the upper reaches of a stream, and that in Tawaramoto-cho, located on the lower reaches.

The Diet of a Buddhist Priest of the Nichiren Sect in the Mid-Edo Period

The Diet of a Buddhist Priest of the Nichiren Sect in the Mid-Edo Period

Nō Motifs in the Decoration of a Mid-Edo Period Kosode

pressed, or explicitly depicted, must also imply, connote, and evoke ranges of further meaning or feeling. A cherry blossom is never merely a cherry blossom. It is also the quintessential symbol of mortal beauty, particularly feminine beauty; of the ephemerality of all mortal things; and of the guardsmanturned-monk Saigyo (1118-90), arguably Japan's best-known and -loved poet, who celebrated in his verses the evanescent glory of wild cherry groves in flower in the Yoshino Mountains.' As an art form, traditional Japanese clothing was laden with cultural significance analogous to that found in Western tapestries but rarely, if ever, in Western apparel. It is in this aspect that traditional Japanese clothing differs most profoundly and significantly from Western, and it is this aspect of which most Western viewers are

On the Socio-economic Structure of an Upland Field Village in the Edo Period

The present study is mainly concerned with the changing structure of the upland field villages which had no paddy fields.In the previous paper (1976), the author investigated the peddling activities by farmers and their agrarian bases in the upland field villages on the Midaigawa alluvial fan in Yamanashi Prefecture. It was clarified that a large number of farmers, especially of the low class, were depending on the peddling activities to cover up their money shortage problem. In that paper, however, the scope of study was mainly limited to the lower class farmers, so the whole social and economic structures of the villages were not necessarily explained.Therefore, in this paper, the author intends to clarify the problem by analyzing the agricultural management and commercial activities by the landowner, the Sajibei family, in the Nishino village on the Midaigawa alluvial fan.The main results are summarized as follows:The early Edo period (the 17th century): The Nishino village consisted of about 30 Honbyakusho (independent farmers) and many subordinate farmers called Kakaeya (kinship with Honbyakusho), Kadoya (non-kinship), Fudaigenin (non-kinship, most intensely subordinate) and Genin (apprentice). The high class Honbyakusho, like the Sajibei family, who owned comparatively large lands, had control over these four types of subordinate farmers. On the other hand middle or low class Honbyakusho had control over Kakaeya. But it is worthy to note that every Honbyakusho had subordinate farmers.The mid Edo period (from the beginning of the 18th century to the first decade of the 19th century): During the second half of the 17th century, Kakaeya had positively reclaimed waste lands and increased their lands more than ever. In 1709, they could become independent of Honbyakusho not only for their economic base but also for their social position. As a result, the number of Honbyakusho increased greatly, while the number of Kakaeya decreased sharply (Fig. 6). The pattern of family composition had also changed. Only the high class Honbyakusho had apprentices, while the others lost subordinate farmers.For the new Honbyakusho it was not easy to depend on agriculture, because its productivity was very low in those days. Therefore, necessarily, they had to supplement their income with non-agricultural economic activities. Hence, they began to peddle agricultural products, but they could not sufficiently earn at that time. After all, they had to pawn their lands to high class farmers in order to pay the tax.The Sajibei family had been engaging in the wholesale business of tobacco from the beginning of the 18th century. It gathered tobacco from producers, brokers and wholesale merchants, and sold them to peddlers and wholesale merchants both in Kai (Yamanashi Prefecture) and other districts, especially in Edo (Tokyo). It could earn much money and afford to lend money to low class farmers. It had gained plenty of lands during the latter half of the 18th century. Many new Honbyakushos lost their lands and became Kosaku farmers (tenants).The late Edo period (from the second decade of the 19th century): The Sajibei family began to do the agricultural management as a landowner of rental farms in the latter half of the 18th century. But it could not earn much money by this management work because the income was only slightly more than the expenses. Therefore, it did not expand its management. Its Kokudaka holding decreased to 21 Koku (1 Koku=180 liters) in 1851 as compared to 128 Koku in the first decade of the 19th century, mainly due to the division of property by inheritance.