Mid Altitude Research Articles

Cut and covered: Subfossil trees in buried soils reflect medieval forest composition and exploitation of the central European uplands

AbstractKnowledge of historic changes in vegetation, relief, and soil is key in understanding how the uplands in central Europe have changed during the last millennium, being an essential requirement for measures on forest conversion and nature conservation in that area. Evidence of forest‐clearing horizons from the medieval period could be systematically documented at four low‐ to mid‐altitudinal sites (360–640 meters above mean sea level) in the Harz (Harz Mountains), Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains), and Českomoravská vrchovina (Bohemian‐Moravian Highlands). Subfossil trees with traces of human cutmarks and burning were recovered from buried wet‐organic soils (paleosols) within a context of mining and settlement archaeology, applying a multiproxy‐approach by using data from archaeology, paleobotany, geochronology, dendrochronology, and pedology. Tree stumps and trunks, as well as small‐scale wood remains represent an in situ record of local conifer stands (spruce, fir, and pine). Some deciduous tree taxa also occur. Dating of the tree remains yielded ages from the 10th/11th to the 13th/14th centuries A.D. After deforestation, the tree remains were buried by technogenic and alluvial–colluvial deposits. The reconstructed conifer‐dominated woodlands on wet soils mirror the local vegetation structure immediately before the medieval deforestation. As such wet sites are common in the uplands, conifers were significantly present in the natural vegetation even at mid and lower altitudes.

African Citrus Greening Disease in East Africa: Incidence, Severity, and Distribution Patterns.

African citrus greening disease (ACGD) is considered as one of the major diseases of citrus threatening citrus production in East Africa. Our study aimed for the first time to assess the incidence, severity, and distribution patterns of ACGD in Kenya and Tanzania. In total, 105 citrus orchards were assessed in 13 regions representing low, mid, and high altitude areas. In each backyard and orchard, trees were randomly selected and rated for visual ACGD symptoms; then leaves and insect samples collected for analysis of 'Candidatus Liberibacter africanus' (CLaf), the presumptive causal agent of ACGD. Endpoint PCR, sequencing, and molecular phylogenetic tools were employed to confirm the identity of potential circulating pathogens. Incidence and severity of ACGD varied significantly among the different regions. Both Trioza erytreae (Del Guerico) (Hemiptera: Triozidae) and the invasive Asian citrus psyllid vector Diaphorina citri (Kuwayama) (Hemiptera: Liviidae) were found to co-occur in upper and lower midland regions. Molecular characterization identified 'Candidatus Liberibacter africanus spp. Clausenae' (CLafCl) as the main causal agent of ACGD in most of the citrus plants and insect samples. No instances of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus infection were found. These findings provide valuable insights into understanding and management of ACGD by employing stringent and early disease detection tools to curb the spread of the disease.

Multi-Site Bundling of Drought Tolerant Maize Varieties and Index Insurance.

Drought Tolerant Maize Varieties (DTMV) and Rainfall Index Insurance (RII) are potential complements, though with limited empirical basis. We employ a multivariate spatial framework to investigate the potential for bundling DTMV with a simulated multi-site and multi-environment RII, designed to insure against mild, moderate and severe drought risk. We use yield data from on-farm trials conducted by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) and partners over 49 locations in Eastern and Southern Africa spanning 8 countries and 5 mega-environments (dry lowland, dry mid altitude, wet lower mid altitude, low wetland and wet upper mid altitude) in which 19 different improved maize varieties including DTMV were tested at each location. Spatially correlated daily rainfall data are generated from a first-order two-state Markov chain process and used to calibrate the index and predict yields with a hierarchical Bayes multivariate spatial model. Results show high variation in the performance and benefits of different bundles which depend on the maize variety, the risk layer insured, and the type of environment, with high chances of selecting a sub-optimal and unattractive contract. We find that complementing RII with a specific DTMV produces contracts with lower premiums and higher guaranteed returns especially in dry lowland increasing the chances of scaling up RII within this environment.

Rainfall analysis for rain-fed farming in the Great Rift Valley Basins of Ethiopia

AbstractRainfall is the most important source of water for crop production in Ethiopia. However, its temporal and spatial variability is leading to serious food shortages and insecurity in the country. This study was aimed at investigating the characteristics of selected agroclimatic variables over the great Rift Valley regions of Ethiopia. Long term (1981–2010) climate data were analyzed for 17 stations selected based on agroecology representation. Selected descriptors for climate variability and the Mann–Kendall trend test were employed. Onset, cessation, length of growing period (LGP), water requirement satisfaction index and dry spell occurrence during the growing period were determined. The results showed low to very high rainfall variability (14–35%), LGP (20–256 days) and dry spell probability (50–100%) during the main season. Significant (P ≤ 0.05) annual and seasonal rainfall trends were observed in some stations. The probability of occurrence of a dry spell during the seasons was found to be a challenge for most of the stations in the mid and low altitude areas of the basins. Consequently, seasonal water deficit was observed in these areas which hampered crop production. Area specific recommendations are thus required based on specific challenges in the study region.

Effect of altitude on climate–growth relationships of Chinese white pine (Pinus armandii) in the northern Funiu Mountain, central China

We developed three tree-ring width chronologies of Chinese white pine (Pinus armandii) along an altitudinal gradient on the same slope of the northern Funiu Mountain, central China. Chronological statistics indicate that there are higher mean sensitivity (M.S.) and standard deviation (S.D.) at high-altitude site while higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and expressed population signal (EPS) at low-altitude site. Correlation analyses between chronologies and climate factors indicate that temperature is the main limiting factor, and discrepant response on tree growth exists at different altitudes. Mean and maximum temperatures in May have significant negative correlations with tree growth at mid and high altitudes, while all temperatures in April show significant positive correlations at high altitude and minimum temperature in August shows significant positive correlation at low-altitude site. It is evident that the limit of temperatures in April and May to tree growth strengthened with increasing altitude. Tree growth also shows significant positive correlations with precipitation in May at high altitude, with precipitation from prior December to current February and scPDSI (self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index) from prior July to current February and May at mid altitude and relative humidity in February and June and scPDSI in current June at low-altitude site. Stability of climate–growth responses by moving correlation analyses shows continuous significant negative correlations with mean and maximum temperature in May and significant positive correlation with precipitation in May at high and low altitudes since 2000 but discontinuously significant negative correlation with precipitation in July–September before 2003 and discontinuously significant positive correlation with precipitation from prior December to current February after 1995. The strong significant positive correlations with scPDSI from prior November to current June since 1990 may indicate that temperature had induced drought stress on tree radial growth at mid-altitude site.

LIVESTOCK FEED DRY MATTER AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION IN BURIE ZURIA DISTRICT, NORTH WESTERN ETHIOPIA

<p>Availability of feed resources, their utilization and balance between supply and demand in Burie Zuria district, north western Ethiopia, were assessedusing focus group discussion, individual interview, key informant interview and secondary data. Data was collected from February to April 2017 on 90, 30 and 30 households (HH)Hs selected from mid, high and low altitudes,respectively, using multi-stage sampling techniques. Data was analysed using FEAST version 2.21 and SPSS version 20.0. Mean land holding, livestock holding and family size were 1.8 ha, 9.03Tropical livestock unit (TLU) and 6.82 persons/HH, respectively. Crop residues, stubble grazing and natural pasture were major feed resources. Maize stover, finger millet and teff straws were the main crop residues produced in all agroecosystems (p<0.05). Inappropriate collection, conservation and feed processing practices reduced efficiency of utilization. Utilizable dry matter (DM) supply was 12.87±0.41 t/HH/yr; and 7.2±0.69, 14.6±0.47 and 15.38±0.66 were from high, mid and low altitudes, respectively; crop residues contributed major part (9.76±0.76 t)(p<0.05). Annual livestock maintenance DM requirement was 20.37±4.14 t/HH/yr with a deficit of 7.5±3.73 t, with DM requirement of 18.25±4.49, 26.78±4.14 and 16.09±3.83t/HH/yr (p<0.05) for high, mid and low altitudes, respectively. Available DM satisfies 63.18 % of DM requirements, where 39.45, 54.51 and 95.58 % (p<0.05) were for high, mid and low altitudes, respectively (p<0.05), indicating more feed shortage at high altitude. In conclusion, the main feed resource is crop residue with low DM contribution. Thus apropriate crop residues management should be used.</p>

Combining ability for grain yield and silking of maize inbred lines derived from three open pollinated varieties released for mid altitudes of Rwanda: Comparison of Diallel and North Carolina Design II

Maize ( Zea mays L.) cropping systems have undergone extraordinary development in Rwanda during the past ten years, mainly due to the increase of agriculture productivity by the Crop Intensification Program (CIP). Consequently, there has been a shift from varieties from Open Pollinated Varieties (OPVs) to hybrid cultivars. The objective of this study was to estimate the general and specific combining abilities of inbred lines, developed from three OPVs released in mid-altitudes of Rwanda. Seventeen inbred lines were divided into female and male groups, and crossed using the North Carolina Design II (NCDII); while ten of them were crossed using Griffing’s Diallel Method 4 (GDM4). The resulting crosses were evaluated at Cyabayaga, Rubona and Bugarama in Rwanda from October 2015 to March 2016. Results showed that additive and non-additive effects controlled grain yield, but non-additive effects were predominant whereas additive and maternal effects predominantly controlled silking. Six inbred lines (RML0006, RML0014, RML0015, RML0018, RM0017 and RML0010) had high general combining abilities (GCAs) for grain yield and negligible GCAs for silking; whereas ten crosses had specific combining abilities (SCAs) superior to 1.5 t ha-1 for grain yield and negligible SCAs for silking. These six inbred lines will also be used to predict and form maize synthetic varieties; while the ten crosses with best SCAs will be utilised for the developing maize hybrid varieties with high yields and reduced silking time. Key words: Additive effects, general combining ability, maternal effects, non-additive effects, specific combing ability

A report on diversity and distribution of macrofungi in the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India

Abstract We report mycodiversity of the different forest types of the Garhwal Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. The results drawn here are based on the study carried out in the different forest sites of the Garhwal Himalaya during the rainy season from 2013 to 2015. We collected a total of 323 specimens, including 310 specimens belonging to Basidiomycota and 13 to Ascomycota. Furthermore, 212 specimens of Basidiomycota were identified and grouped into 33 families, 75 genera and 198 species, while 13 specimens of Ascomycota were grouped into 7 families, 7 genera and 11 species. 127 species were found in oak dominated temperate broadleaved forest, while 42 were collected from coniferous and 19 from the mixed woodland composed mainly of Quercus, Myrica, Rhododendron and Pinus trees in middle to higher hills, and Shorea robusta and Tectona grandis in the dipterocarp forests of lower hills. In terms of fungal species distribution in these forests, Amanitaceae, Russulaceae and Boletaceae were found most dominant in oak dominated forests, whereas Tricholomataceae and Cantharellaceae were commonly found in Pinus and Cedrus dominated forests and those belonging to family Cortinariaceae – in mixed forests. Species belonging to the families Agaricaceae, Amanitaceae and Tricholomataceae were found dominant in dipterocarp forest in the lower Himalayan region. The majority of species belonging to all families were found near lower to mid range altitude, which may result from the overlapping effect of atmospheric temperature and climate. The members of seven families, i.e., Russulaceae, Amanitaceae, Tricholomataceae, Boletaceae, Cantharellaceae, Cortinariaceae and Gomphaceae, were found as main ectomycorrhizal forming species from the elevation range of 500-2800 m a.s.l., in all four forest types.

Malaria Patterns in the Afromontane Ecotone in Uganda

Background : Malaria remains a major tropical vector-borne disease of immense public health concern owing to its debilitating effects in sub-Saharan Africa. In the recent past, the Afromontane ecotones in Eastern Africa have been reported to experience dramatic cases of malaria. However, its epidemiology remains widely unexplored in these regions. Methods: This study analysed malaria patterns in the Afromontane ecotone of Mount Elgon, Uganda. Times series data of malaria cases from five local health centers was utilised to determine malaria incidences within attitudinally stratified ecotones. Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation regression was utilised to determine the spatio-temporal patterns of malaria. Findings: On average 66.3±69.2 suffered from malaria on a monthly basis. This was more pronounced in the months of May-August 89.3±87.6 compared to the months of November-February 39.7±33.2. Individuals of the age groups 0- 28 days and 29 days-4 years were more affected by malaria with 98.9±145 and 86.1±141 respectively compared to individuals of the age groups 5-59, 60 and above with malaria incidence of 47.7±27.2 and 9.9±4.2 respectively. Malaria incidences were more concentrated in the lower altitude 586.5±749.8 compared to mid and high altitude areas; 345.1±320.5 and 338.2±350.6 respectively. Spatial patterns reveal that malaria incidences have relatively increased in the high altitude ecotones from low in 2012 to moderately high incidence in 2017 but with the lower altitude remaining with a higher incidences 586.5±749.8. In addition, malaria incidence varied with gender groups with males having incidences of 66.5±89.4 (0-28 days), 160.1±170.6 (29 days-4 years), 55.1±30.3 (5-59 years) and 9.3±3.7 (60 years and above) while males had 131.2±180.7 (0-28 days), 86.1±141 (29 days-4 years), 40.3±21.7 (5-59 years) and 10.5±4.6 (60 years and above). Interpretation: In this regard, malaria control interventions ought to strategically respond to prepare the inhabitants to the high altitude ecotones to cope and adapt with malaria whilst supporting the lower altitude ecotones withstand the malaria burden. Funding Statement: This study was funded privately by the corresponding author (Siya Aggrey). Declaration of Interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interest. Ethics Approval Statement: The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Makerere University College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (Reference number SBLS.SA.2018).

Grain Yield Performance of Biofortified Climbing Common Bean Genotypes (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) Evaluated Across Different Agro-ecologies in Tanzania

Assessment study on yield performance and consumer preferences characteristics of iron and zinc fortified bean genotypes was conducted between 2014/15 and 2015/16 seasons at different agro-ecologies of Tanzania. The objective of the study was to improve nutrition and income of smallholder farmers through growing and selling of high yielding and iron bean genotypes. The experiments consisted of five high iron enhanced climbing common bean genotypes namely: MAC 44 (80.3 mg/kg), RWV (78 mg/kg), MAC9 (64 mg/kg), MAC49 (66.6 mg/kg) and Selian (35.2 mg/kg). These planting materials were planted in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications in Arusha at ARI-Selian farm, Lambo in Kilimanjaro, ARI-Uyole in Mbeya and in Kagera at ARI-Maruku. The sites ARI-Selian and Maruku represented mid altitude agro-ecologies, ARI Uyole (high altitude) and Lambo site is low agro-ecology. Grain yield and disease reaction scores data was collected and analysed using GenStat 15 th edition software. Results showed significance difference (P≤0.05) for grain yield and diseases. Grain yield ranged from 1538kg/ha to 4314 kg/ha. Genotype RWV1129 produced 3091 kg/ha in 2014/2015 where as MACC44 yielded relatively higher (3530kg/ha than RWV1129 at Selian site in 2015/2016 season. The farmers’ participatory variety selection approach used in selecting of new improved bean genotypes depicted high yield, high market demanded, and resistant to diseases as the key important criteria. Genotypes MACC44 and RWV 1129 were the best genotypes accepted by farmers due to their high yield, and high market value. Therefore, the study recommended them to be registered and released as nutritionally improved varieties for farmers’ cultivation and consumption thereby to relief the iron deficient vulnerable groups in Tanzania. Keywords: Climbing bean, Biofortification, Performance, Iron and Zinc DOI : 10.7176/JBAH/9-4-06

Kesesuaian Ketinggian Tempat terhadap Penerapan Sistem Tanam Legowo untuk Peningkatan Produksi Padi

This research was to obtain information of rice planting system technology based on altitude and type of varieties that correlated with high productivity. The experiment was conducted at dry season 2016 in three districts, Bandung, Subang, and Indramayu representing the high, mid and low altitudes. Experiment was arranged in split plot with 6 replications. The main plot was variety representing 2 type of variety, i.e (1) Inbred Inpari 32 and (2) Hybrid Hipa 18. The sub plot was planting system : (1) tegel (25x25 cm), (2) legowo 2:1 (25x12,5x50 cm), and (3) legowo 4:1 type 2 (25x12,5x50 cm). The result showed that growth and yield were very specific to pattern of planting system and type of variety. The interaction between location and planting system significantly to tiller number, leaf area, biomass, growth rate, and nett assimilation. In general, application of legowo planting system provided a higher yield than square planting system (tegel). In addition, increased production with application of legowo planting system suitable in upland for both Inpari 32 and Hipa 18. Otherwise, its application in midle and lowland not significant increased yield.

Interactive effects of altitude, microclimate and shading system on coffee leaf rust

ABSTRACT Shade effects on coffee diseases are ambiguous because they vary depending on the season and environment. Using Coffee Leaf Rust (CLR) as an example, we demonstrate relationships between the environment and shading systems and their effects on disease intensity. We characterized seasonal variations in microclimate and CLR incidence across different altitudes and shading systems, and integrated effects between the environment, shading systems, microclimate and CLR into a piecewise structural equation model. The diurnal temperature range was higher in unshaded systems, but differences decreased with altitude. Humidity related indicators in shaded systems decreased with altitude. At mid and high altitudes, high CLR incidence occurred in the shading system showing a low diurnal temperature range and a high dew point temperature. Our study demonstrates how microclimatic indicators vary as a function of the season, altitude and the coffee shading system, and how this in turn is related to CLR.

Effect of Altitudinal and Seasonal Factors on Diatomological Mapping of Waterbodies: Implication in Drowning Investigations

Diatoms are an essential part of forensic investigation in drowning cases. They are used to differentiate between ante-mortem and post-mortem drowning and to ascertain the site of drowning. However, to do so it is imperative to perform the diatomological mapping of water sources in different regions. The issue of localizing a drowning site may be resolved with the help of diatomological monitoring and mapping of the water sources, which generates substantial references for meeting the ‘criterion of concordance’. The present study has generated a database of diatom diversity in relation to different seasons and altitudes. Water sampling was made from low, mid and high altitudes during summer and autumn seasons. Important information was found after a microscopic examination of diatoms in water samples from different water bodies at different geographical altitudes. Twenty-seven diatom genera have been observed in the water samples from the selected localities. The findings of the current study have exposed the significant effect of seasonal changes and varied altitudes on occurrence of diatoms. A variety of commonly occurring site restricted diatoms were identified in the water samples. This useful information can be significant while investigating drowning cases from this particular region when the drowning site is either questioned or unknown.

Woody species composition and diversity of riparian vegetation along the Walga River, Southwestern Ethiopia.

The primary objective of this study was to examine the status of woody species composition and diversity along the Walga River of Wonchi, Southwestern Ethiopia. Fifty quadrats of 10 m x 50 m were laid at 500 m interval through systematic sampling method along the river line. Vegetation height (≥2.5 m) and DBH (≥2.5 cm) of only tree species were measured and altitude, ecological disturbances such as, grazing intensity and human impacts were included as main environmental variables at each of the sampled plots. The data was analyzed using different R statistical packages. Ninety-nine woody vascular plant species belonged to 81 genera and 45 familieswere recorded in Walga riparian vegetation. Only 10% of specieswere endemic to the Flora area. Asteraceae and Fabaceae had the highest number of species. Majority of the species (52.5%) were shrubs. Four major plant community types were identified: Euclea divinorum-Maytenus arbutifolia (1), Pterolobium stellatum- Calpurnia aurea (2), Brucea antidysenterica-Prunus africana (3), Erica arborea-Hagenia abyssinica (4). Species richness, true diversity and importance values were highestin community type 2(the lowest altitude ranges between 1976–2212 m a.s.l.) while evenness was highestin community type 3(mid altitude ranges between 2359–2676 m a.s.l.). Both community typeswere comprised of 56% of all recorded species and all endemic taxa except two. The highest percentage of species in lower frequency classes indicates a higher degree of floristic heterogeneity. There was a strong negative correlation (r = -0.65, p<0.001) between species richness and altitude with 42% of the variation in species richness per plot being explained by altitude. Our findings suggest that human disturbances and excessive livestock grazing are the main threats in community types1 and 2. We conclude that identifying major plant community types and underlying environmental conditions may help to manage and conserve forest resources in the area.

Genetic Diversity of Aphid (Hemiptera: Aphididae) Species Attacking Amaranth and Nightshades in Different Agro-Ecological Zones of Kenya and Tanzania

Aphids are major pests of African indigenous vegetables. Information on the genetic diversity and the role of host crop and environmental differentiation in their diversity in East Africa is scanty. The knowledge on genetic diversity is a critical component in the development of sound and sustainable integrated pest management strategy, from detection to control. A portion of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene was used to characterise the species of aphids on amaranth and nightshades at different agro-ecological zones of Kenya and Tanzania. Aphid samples were collected in localities growing the vegetables in low, mid and high altitude agro-ecological zones. Total DNA was isolated and amplified using universal barcoding primers targeting the 5′ end of the COI barcode region. Nucleotide sequences of the COI barcode, using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool model, found high homology to four species of aphids: Myzus persicae, Aphis fabae, Aphis craccivora and Macrosiphum euphorbiae. Three subspecies of the A. fabae were also detected. Intraspecific diversity depicted M. euphorbiae having the lowest value, while A. fabae showed the highest diversity. Interspecific diversity between A. fabae and A. craccivora was the lowest while between A. craccivora and M. persicae it was the highest. The phylogenetic tree showed each species clustering together irrespective of the host crop or site where collected. Principal component analysis and haplotype network analyses confirmed these results. Low genetic diversity revealed by COI suggests that the environment or host crop contribute less to the genetic diversity of aphids in both countries.

Bosque Pehuén Park's Flora: A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Andean Montane Forests in the Araucanía Region, Chile

In Chile, most protected areas are located in the southern Andes, in mountainous landscapes at mid or high altitudes. Despite the increasing proportion of protected areas, few have detailed inventories of their biodiversity. This information is essential to define threats and develop long-term integrated conservation programs to face the effects of global change. Consequently, the objectives of this study were to (1) describe the richness, conservation status, and species composition of the vascular flora found in Bosque Pehuen Park; and (2) analyze the relationships among altitude, species richness, and growth forms. Bosque Pehuen is one of the largest privately protected areas located within the Araucarias Biosphere Reserve, in southern Chile (39°S). The park is dominated by secondary forests that grew after intensive exploitation in the 1970s, with some remnant old-growth forests. Fifteen regularly distributed plots, 150 m in radius, were sampled. At each plot, all vascular plant species were recorded; 101 species were found, of which 79% are endemic, 10% are introduced, and 13% are currently listed in IUCN conservation categories. The highest richness was concentrated within the plots associated with riparian zones. The total richness tended to decrease with altitude. Epiphytes and climbers were only recorded at lower altitudes, making them the growth forms most influenced by altitude. The background information reported here is essential for effective park management and conservation of the vascular flora species found within this Andean montane forest.

Participatory demonstration and evaluation of improved chickpea technologies in the mid altitude areas of Bale zone, Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia

Participatory demonstration and evaluation of improved chickpea technologies in the mid altitude areas of Bale zone, Oromia National Regional State, Ethiopia

Opportunities for sustainable intensification of coffee agro-ecosystems along an altitudinal gradient on Mt. Elgon, Uganda

The viability of coffee farming in East Africa is endangered by multiple factors including climate change, population pressure, low yields, and coffee price volatility. Sustainable intensification (SI) through intercropping and/or agroforestry has been suggested to improve farmers’ livelihoods, facilitate adaptation of coffee production to climate change and contribute to biodiversity conservation.In order to understand how sustainable intensification through an ecosystem-based approach might offer opportunities to respond to changes in temperature and rainfall, we analyzed a variety of existing coffee agro-ecosystems that differ in vegetation structure, shade tree diversity, and socio-economic characteristics on Mt. Elgon, Uganda along an altitudinal gradient (1100–2100 m.a.s.l.). We (i) compared the performance of the agro-ecosystems regarding coffee yield and shade tree diversity, and (ii) analyzed determinants of adoption of each system. Three different coffee agro-ecosystems were identified: open canopy coffee system, coffee-banana intercropping, and coffee-tree systems, based on the vegetation structure of 144 coffee plots.The vegetation structure of the analyzed coffee systems varied along the altitudinal gradient. Banana density increased with increasing altitude, while shade tree density and diversity increased with decreasing altitude. Coffee yield also increased with increasing altitude, but this relationship varied with shade level. Coffee yields benefited from shade trees at low altitudes, while no yield differences among systems were observed at mid and high altitudes. Increasing water availability and reliance on on-farm food crops with increasing altitude were identified as the main determinants of the increasing intercropped banana densities. High temperatures and longer dry season in combination with reduced access to forest products at lower altitudes, appeared to be the main driver for increased adoption of coffee-tree systems. Furthermore, socio-economic status of farmers influenced the type of coffee system adopted; poor farmers preferred high intercropping (either with bananas and/or shade trees) to diversify income and reduce risks related to open systems, while wealthier farmers mainly owned open canopy coffee systems.Climate, farm and household size, and access to forests and markets, play a crucial role in determining what constellation of plot-level provisioning ecosystem services benefit farmers’ livelihoods on Mt. Elgon. Our findings reveal inherent trade-offs in socio-ecological conditions. Minimizing these is required for achieving the multiple objectives of livelihood improvement, sustainable intensification of coffee production, and biodiversity conservation.

Asparagus racemosus aqueous root extract induced effects on cellular immune reaction of Labeo rohita (Hamilton)

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of Asparagus racemosus aqueous root extract on cellular immune reaction of Labeo rohita (Hamilton) fingerlings with response to bacterial infection caused by Aeromonas hydrophila at cool hilly mid altitude region of Meghalaya. Four concentrates mixtures of pelleted diet were formulated viz. without A. racemosus aqueous root extract (control); with 50 mg A. racemosus aqueous root extract/kg of diet (AR1); with 100 mg A. racemosus aqueous root extract/kg of diet (AR2); and with 150 mg A. racemosus aqueous root extract/kg of diet (AR3). Feeding trial was conducted for 60 days. Immune reactions, viz. NBT level, phagocytic activity, total immunoglobulin level, lysozyme activity, antiprotease activity and myeloperoxidase activity of fish were determined at 0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 days of feeding. Fish were infected with A. hydrophila 60 days post feeding, mortalities (%) and agglutination antibody titre were recorded over 14 days post infection. The results showed that in the treatment group AR2, AR3, there was significantly enhanced NBT level, phagocytic activity, lysozyme activity, immunoglobulin level, antiprotease activity and myeloperoxidase activity compared to control. The treatment group AR1 NBT level, phagocytic activity, lysozyme activity, myeloperoxidase activity were significantly enhanced whereas immunoglobulin level and antiprotease activity were nonsignificant compared to control. The highest survival was recorded in the AR2 (43.36±0.65) group, followed by AR3 (24.32±0.14), AR1 (17.26±0.45) and lowest were recorded in the control (3.42±0.02). The highest agglutination antibody titre was recorded in the AR2 (87.36±0.65) group followed by AR3 (49.32±0.14) and AR1 (38.26±0.45) group and lowest in control (17.42±0.02) against A. hydrophila infection. Thus, from the present study it can be deduced that feed containing A. racemosus aqueous root extracts/kg diet can influence immune reaction in L. rohita; however, AR2 group showed better result in terms of immune reaction and protection against pathogenic A. hydrophila at cool hilly mid altitude region of Meghalaya.

Evaluation of Grazing Land Condition in Gozamen District, East Gojjam Zone, Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia

The study was conducted in Gozamen district of East Gojam Zone of the Amhara region to assess the major feed resources, the grazing land condition, and the floristic composition and biomass yields of herbaceous species to generate baseline information which can be used for future management of grazing land resources in the area. The survey data was collected by interviewing a total of 120 households by random selection of two rural-kebeles from three altitudes [high, mid and low].To assess grazing land condition, the district was stratified into three altitudes [high, mid and low altitudes]. From each altitude, communal and enclosed grazing areas were selected randomly. From each altitude 8 composites and 12 composites from enclosed and 12 composites from communal grazing for herbaceous vegetation and 4 transects from each altitude of communal grazing were selected. Thus, a total of 72 quadrats were used for herbaceous and 12 transects for woody species. For the natural pasture condition assessment, analyses of variance [ANOVA] were carried out by the General Linear Model [GLM] procedure of SAS. Mean separation was tested using the least significant difference. The main feed resources to the livestock in all altitudes were natural pasture, crop residues and stubble grazing. During dry season, crop residues was the first livestock feed source followed by natural pasture in all altitudes. However, during wet season, natural pasture was the first livestock feed source followed by crop resides in all altitudes. In terms of dry matter [DM] crop residues contributed the highest proportion [66.7%] of the total feed sources. The DM obtained from crop residues significantly varied [P&lt; 0.05] among the altitudes. The total annual estimated available feed supply to maintain the livestock in the area satisfied only 79.4%. The conservation of feed resources in the form of hay in high, mid and low altitudes was 38.5, 80, and 22.5%, respectively. But, none of the respondents used silage in the study area due to lack of knowledge how to make it. In the district, a total of 21 herbaceous species were identified [Table 4], from these 57, 24 and 19% were grasses, legumes and other species, respectively. Based on dry matter of biomass, Medicago polymorpha in high and mid altitudes and Eleusine floccifolia in low altitude were the dominant species. Altitude and grazing have effects on grazing land conditions and biomass production. The average dry matter yield of grasses, legumes and total biomass had a significant difference among altitudes in enclosed and communal grazing areas. The average dry matter yield of grasses, legumes, and total biomass were higher in enclosed area than communal grazing areas in all altitudes. There were a significant [P&lt; 0.01] interaction of altitude and grazing on biomass and species composition. There were positive correlation of species composition, grass species composition and basal cover with biomass. Crop residues and natural pastures are the major feed resources in dry and wet seasons, respectively. The total annual dry matter does not meet the total livestock requirement per annum in district. Further research and development work is recommended to alleviate feed shortage through different options such as development of improved forages and alternative means of crop residue utilization and conservation of feed in the form hay and crop residues. Keywords: Altitudinal range; Botanical composition; Crop residues; Dry matter; Feed balance; Grazing land types; Natural pasture;